Essential Facts
- The consumption of alcohol was a key component of life in America from the settlement of Jamestown onward.
- Colonists adapted European drinking habits and developed new customs.
- Beer, cider, and distilled spirits, such as rum and gin, were usually included with meals and were believed to be beneficial to a person’s health.
- Rum was essential to the economy in the New England Colonies and was a key component of the Triangular Trade System.
- Alcohol was often used to pay workers and soldiers, while also being used as currency in business transactions.
- Drinking was part of communal activities, religious practices, and daily routines.
- Native American Indians, enslaved people, and women faced restrictions on alcohol.
- Drunkenness was looked down on and discouraged by law enforcement and the clergy.
Key Statistics
- The most popular beer was a dark beer with an alcohol content of about 6%.
- Home-brewed “small beer” had an alcohol content of about 1%.
- Distilled liquors like rum and whiskey had an alcohol content of 45% (90 proof).
Significance
Alcohol in Colonial America is an essential topic in American History because of the influence it had on the social and cultural components of life in the American Colonies. The consumption of alcohol influenced work habits, social events, and even politics.
History
Alcohol was the standard drink of choice for many people living in the American Colonies, from the early days of settlement through the New Nation Era. Alcohol was an essential part of life in Europe, and colonists brought this tradition with them to the British Colonies and New Netherland. Often considered safer and healthier than water, alcohol helped shape American cultural norms and traditions.
- Alcohol was a central part of colonial life from the earliest settlements to the American Revolution.
- Early drinking habits and beverage choices were influenced by European traditions brought by settlers.
- Over time, American colonists developed their own distinct beverages and drinking customs, which differed from those in Europe.
Alcohol in Early America
Most alcohol consumption took place in inns and taverns, which were among the first buildings erected in colonial settlements.
- Colonists from all walks of life drank alcoholic beverages regularly.
- People of all ages, races, and social statuses consumed alcohol.
- Alcoholic drinks were consumed in large amounts.
- This practice was common among all colonial groups.
Colonists drank large amounts of alcohol because it was plentiful and there were few alternatives to water. Without refrigeration or pasteurization, fruit juices naturally ferment due to the presence of airborne yeast, which increases the alcohol content.
- White adult men were responsible for roughly two-thirds of the alcohol consumption in America.
- While women did not abstain from alcohol, it was considered improper for them to drink in public or get drunk.
Employees and hired workers often received a pint of beer or another alcoholic drink as part of their wages. However, servants, Indentured Servants, and enslaved people had limited access to alcohol.
- Laws in every colony prohibited tavern keepers from serving these individuals without permission from their employers or masters.
- Due to their social status, these workers were unlikely to be able to afford alcoholic drinks.
- Masters were known to offer slaves alcohol as an incentive, but the drinks were often watered down.
Drinking water was viewed by some as a sign of poverty, but it was often dangerous and unhealthy. Water was also considered better suited for animals. However, water was often polluted and frequently carried diseases due to the presence of refuse, excrement, and insects.
- Jamestown — The first settlers at Jamestown in 1607 suffered from diseases carried by mosquitoes that thrived in the murky, stagnant water near the settlement.
- Plymouth — Governor William Bradford said the life expectancy of settlers was based on “chaing of aeir, famine, or unholsome foode, much drinking of water, sorrows & troubls, etc.”
Alternatives like coffee and tea were limited. Coffee was unfamiliar to most colonists before the late 18th century, while tea remained a luxury item until tea duties were lowered in 1745. Another common alternative was milk. However, families with cows and goats often used the milk to make butter and cheese.
Beer
Beer was produced in the colonies from the earliest days of settlement. Beer production decreased in the 18th Century, but expanded significantly after the colonies declared independence.
- The Dutch West Indian Company built a brewery in New Amsterdam in 1632.
- English settlers also had a strong preference for beer, and they started brewing as soon as they arrived.
- The most popular beer was a dark malt made from barley and flavored with hops, containing around 6% alcohol. This beer was similar to the modern-day porters and stouts.
- Colonial women also brewed beer at home, and it became a staple of their diet. This was called “small beer” and had a very low alcohol content, usually around 1%.
- Imported beer from Europe was available for those who could afford it.
- Many Founding Fathers, including George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, brewed beer, and Samuel Adams operated a brewery for a short time.
Cider
Orchards, planted with European apple seeds, thrived in the northern climate. Because of this, hard cider, brewed from apples, became popular in New England.
- Cider ferments naturally to about 7% alcohol and was as popular as beer.
- By the early 1700s, Anglo-Americans were distilling cider into a liquor called “Applejack.”
- Applejack was especially popular in the Mid-Atlantic colonies.
- “Jersey Lightning” was a potent version of Applejack, intended for serious drinkers.
- Someone with a hangover caused by Applejack was said to be suffering from “apple palsy.”
Wine
Wine was popular in Europe, but was only available to the upper class in the American Colonies, due to high import costs.
- Unlike the Spanish and French, the English did not practice grape cultivation (viticulture) in their colonies in the New World.
- In Virginia, French Huguenots tried to grow grapes for profit, but they switched to tobacco and abandoned their vineyards.
- Most wine in the English colonies was imported from Europe and the Madeira Islands.
- Wine never became as popular as beer or cider among the general population.
Hard Liquor
Hard liquor, also known as “aqua vitae” or “hot water,” included distilled spirits such as brandy, whiskey, gin, and rum.
- These usually contained 45% alcohol (90 proof), with rum often being the strongest.
- Colonists valued hard liquor for its high alcohol content, which helped it last longer than beer. However, the high alcohol content contributed to excessive drunkenness.
- They raised concerns about misuse from the start, due to their potency.
Around the turn of the 18th Century, distilled spirits became more popular than beer. This was due to economic factors, especially an increase in the supply of molasses and a decrease in the price.
- Rum was very common and was served straight or mixed into “grogs” and “toddies.”
- Increased sugar cane production in the Caribbean fueled the rise of rum consumption.
- Colonial officials had concerns about alcohol abuse, but encountered difficulty in trying to regulate drinking habits.
Gin, made from juniper berries, was inexpensive to produce, and it became popular among the urban poor.
- By the 1730s, many people in England believed that gin was harming society. This was famously depicted in “Gin Lane,” a 1751 illustration by William Hogarth, that supported the passage of the Gin Act.
The urban population in the American Colonies was small enough that gin did not gain the same social significance as it did in England. However, colonial officials began to regulate alcohol consumption more closely as the 18th Century progressed.
- Gin Act (1751) — Also known as the Sale of Spirits Act, it was enacted by Parliament to reduce the consumption of gin and other hard liquors, which were believed to be the cause of crime and poverty in London, England.
Consumption of Hard Liquor in the Early 18th Century
By the early 18th Century, distilled liquors were the preferred beverages in America, but cider was the most widely consumed. However, colonists also drank fermented brews like beer, wine, and cider.
- The average annual per capita consumption of hard liquor, mainly rum, was approximately 4 gallons.
- Cider was easily accessible and likely provided the majority of the alcohol consumed by colonists.
- Just before the American Revolutionary War, Americans consumed an average of only one-tenth of a gallon of wine per year.
Perceived Health Benefits of Alcohol
Alcohol consumption in colonial America was marked by high frequency and large quantities. Settlers drank often and in abundance, as alcohol was a regular part of daily life. Americans, along with Europeans, believed alcoholic drinks were beneficial to nutrition and health.
- People of all ages used alcohol as medicine and to enhance beauty, believing it was healthy and beneficial.
- Beer and cider were common beverages at mealtime, even for children.
- Whiskey, rum, gin, and brandy were often included with meals and were used to provide variety in a person’s diet.
- These particular drinks were also thought to have medicinal properties that helped cure minor illnesses, such as colds and fevers. They were also capable of helping people recover from snakebites, frostbite, and even broken bones.
- Alcohol was used to relieve depression, reduce tension, and encourage participation in social settings.
- Midwives made “caudle,” a drink of ale or wine mixed with spices, for women in labor.
- Puritans allowed drinking on Sundays for health reasons, such as “for the releife of those that are sicke or faint.”
Alcohol in Religion and Politics
Alcohol was consumed at religious events, such as weddings, births, funerals, ministerial ordinations, and holidays.
- Anglican and Puritan churches used communion wine throughout Colonial America.
- In the New England Colonies, towns held “ordinaries,” or weekly gatherings where citizens prayed, ate, drank, and socialized.
- In the Southern Colonies, candidates for local office often practiced “treating,” providing alcohol to voters in exchange for their support.
Alcohol in Social Settings
- Holidays were celebrated with rounds of alcoholic toasts.
- Communal tasks like clearing fields or building homes often included a public cask of alcohol to support workers.
- Farmers typically took a generous ration of alcohol into the fields.
- Many colonists believed alcohol helped alleviate the physical strain of hard labor.
Alcohol in the Workplace
Hard liquor was highly valued by colonists and often used as wages in the early years.
- In the 1640s, the Boston town council tried to stop this practice.
- Some workers responded by going on strike.
- Boston officials reversed their decision and restored the practice of allowing alcohol to be used for payment.
Alcohol and Native Americans
Alcohol was an essential trade item between European Americans and Native Americans Indian. However, alcohol had adverse effects on their culture.
- Indians would overhunt animals for furs, which they traded for alcohol.
- Some made bad deals with dishonest traders in exchange for alcohol.
- At times, hunting seasons were sometimes wasted in alcohol binges.
- Alcohol consumption led to violent behavior among some Native Americans.
- Some agreed to sell land under the influence of alcohol.
Indian leaders like Neolin, Handsome Lake, and The Prophet promoted movements encouraging Indians to maintain their traditions and oppose Europeans, which included limiting or eliminating the consumption of alcohol.
- Neolin — Neolin was a Delaware who claimed to have had a dream and been visited by a being called the Master of Life. The Master of Life told him that land in the Ohio Country, where the Delaware and others lived, was meant for the Indians and no others. Neolin traveled through the region and preached in the villages. The Ottawa chief, Pontiac, one of the key leaders in Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763–1766), was a follower.
- Handsome Lake — At the close of the 18th century, a Seneca named Handsome Lake rose to prominence, calling for the Iroquois to give up alcohol and other vices. He was influenced by Quaker missionaries who lived among the Seneca. Many Iroquois embraced the “Code of Handsome Lake,” which contributed to improved conditions.
- The Prophet — He was a Shawnee named Tenskwatawa, and his brother was Tecumseh. Together, they sought to resist Westward Expansion. His movement promoted traditional practices, including abandoning clothing made of textiles for buckskin and abstaining from alcohol.
At times, British and American officials placed strict regulations on trading alcohol with Indians due to their ethnic and cultural differences.
- Before Europeans arrived, Indians had no experience with alcohol.
- They quickly learned of its effects, especially from European fur traders.
- Many colonists believed Indians could not handle alcohol, and they were susceptible to the effects. This is known as the “Firewater Myth.”
- The reality is that reactions to alcohol varied among different tribes and nations.
- The stereotype persisted, and most colonies implemented laws limiting the sale of liquor to Indians. However, enforcement was often weak, as government officials and traders used alcohol to their advantage in dealing with Indians.
Alcohol and Enslaved People
Enslaved people, typically of African descent, had limited access to alcohol. Like Indians, they were viewed as culturally and mentally inferior to Anglo-Americans, and their alcohol consumption was intentionally limited.
- On holidays, Sundays, and special occasions, some owners gave their slaves liquor as rewards.
- However, the discipline and demands placed on slaves, along with white fears of intoxicated blacks, kept alcohol consumption limited to “medicinal purposes.”
- In the New England and Mid-Atlantic colonies, slaves caught in taverns without their masters’ permission were often flogged. Tavern owners who served alcohol to slaves faced fines.
- After the 1741 New York Slave Conspiracy, severe fines were imposed on anyone selling liquor to African Americans.
Alcohol and the Military
- Militia training and gatherings often ended at taverns, where the men would drink together.
- Soldiers in the Continental Army and sailors in the Continental Navy received daily rations of alcohol.
- Extra alcohol rations were often provided to celebrate victories or appease disgruntled troops.
Effects of British Policies on Alcohol
The Navigation Acts were a series of British laws that controlled trade and trade routes within the British Empire, as well as essential products like tobacco and molasses. Rum was distilled from molasses and was also a key component of the Triangular Trade System.
- These laws, especially the Molasses Act (1733) and the Sugar Act (1764), affected the production of rum in America, especially New England.
- The Sugar Act also affected the import of Madeira wine, which was popular among the upper class (see Sugar Act Section 1).
The passage and enforcement of the Sugar Act ended the longtime practice of Salutary Neglect, which laid the foundation for the ideological beginnings of the American Revolution.
The Whiskey Rebellion
In the late 18th Century, whiskey became more common due to corn production in the West. Farmers distilled corn into whiskey, making it easier to transport and sell for a profit. Whiskey production increased, which lowered prices and boosted consumption. Farmers also used it as a form of currency, using it to buy other things and pay their bills.
- In 1791, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton introduced a 25% excise tax on whiskey, which was the first Federal tax in American History.
- It was part of his Financial Plan and was intended to raise revenue for the new Federal Government under the United States Constitution.
- Western farmers resisted the tax, and an uprising known as the Whiskey Rebellion broke out in 1792.
- A group calling themselves the “Whiskey Boys” adopted the slogan “Liberty and no excise” and harassed tax collectors.
- The violence escalated in 1794 when armed rebels and militia confronted revenue collectors and Federal troops in several counties in Western Pennsylvania.
- President George Washington responded by issuing a proclamation on August 7, 1794, calling on the rebels “to disperse and retire peaceably to their respective abodes.”
- An army was assembled, which Washington led on a march over the Allegheny Mountains to the town of Bedford, Pennsylvania, where General Henry Lee took command.
- The rebels dispersed, and the rebellion came to an end.
Social Restrictions on Alcohol
Before the American Revolution, there was little public outcry against alcoholism. However, extreme drinking was usually kept to a minimum due to cultural and societal norms.
- Many Americans had to remain sober to defend themselves from surprise attacks and raids by Indians.
- Families, friends, ministers, and public officials helped prevent poor behavior when people consumed too much alcohol.
- Increase Mather condemned drunkenness in his 1673 sermon “Woe to Drunkards.”
Colonial officials did not generally oppose alcohol consumption but worked to regulate excessive drinking. However, they did focus on crimes related to alcohol, and each colony developed legal codes to address liquor violations.
AP US History Alignment
Alcohol in Colonial America is part of the following units, topics, and chapters in the AP US History curriculum:
Unit 1: 1491–1607
- 1.2 — Native American Societies Before European Contact
- 1.6 — Cultural Interactions Between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans
Unit 2: 1607–1754
- 2.4 — Transatlantic Trade
- 2.5 — Interactions Between American Indians and Europeans
- 2.6 — Slavery in the British Colonies
- 2.7 — Colonial Society and Culture
