America on the World Stage

Essential Facts

• In the Philippine-American War, the United States asserted its control over the Philippines, initiating American imperial ambitions.
• The U.S. expanded its influence in the Far East by helping end the Boxer Rebellion in China and establishing the Open Door Policy.
• William McKinley was reelected for a second term as President in 1900, with Theodore Roosevelt as his Vice President.
• Roosevelt took office after McKinley was assassinated in 1901 by an anarchist.
• As President, Roosevelt used his authority to use “Big Stick Diplomacy” to push his foreign policy agenda.
• Through a series of treaties and support for a revolution in Panama, the U.S. secured the legal authority to build the Panama Canal.
• To protect the influence in the Western Hemisphere, Roosevelt expanded the Monroe Doctrine to manage the financial difficulties of Latin American nations.
• Roosevelt coordinated negotiations that ended the Russo-Japanese War.
• He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his effort.
• Tensions with Japan increased after San Francisco segregated its schools, removing Japanese children.
• Roosevelt organized the Gentlemen’s Agreement with Japan and sent the U.S. Navy on a worldwide tour to showcase American naval strength.

Significance

Theodore Roosevelt’s foreign policy is essential to American History because it started to expand America’s global influence through diplomacy, the acquisition of territory, and military strength.

Insurrection in the Philippines After the Spanish-American War

• Filipinos expected to gain independence like Cuba after the Spanish-American War.
• The U.S. Senate refused to pass a resolution granting them independence.
• Filipinos responded with an insurrection on February 4, 1899, led by Emilio Aguinaldo.
• For the U.S., the conflict with the Filipinos lasted longer, was more brutal, and deadlier than the war with Spain.
• Anti-Imperialists criticized the U.S. for contradicting its values of liberty and freedom.

Spanish-American War (1898) — The Spanish-American War was a conflict between Spain and the United States in 1898, sparked by U.S. support for Cuban independence and tensions following the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor. The war lasted a few months and ended with a decisive U.S. victory, resulting in the Treaty of Paris (1898). Spain ceded control of Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the U.S., starting the nation’s emergence as a global power and the beginning of its Imperialist Era.

Emilio Aguinaldo (1899–1901) — Emilio Aguinaldo was a Filipino nationalist and revolutionary leader who played a significant role in the Philippines’ struggle for independence. Aguinaldo fought against Spanish colonial rule and later against American forces during the Filipino-American War. He was the first president of the Philippine Republic (1899-1901). He was captured by U.S. forces in 1901, marking the decline of Filipino resistance.

Philippine-American War (1899–1902) — The Philippine-American War was a conflict between the Philippines and the United States from 1899 to 1902, sparked by Filipino resistance to U.S. annexation after the Spanish-American War. Filipino forces, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, sought independence but faced retaliation from American troops. The war resulted in significant casualties and established the Philippines as an American Colony, delaying Filipino independence until 1946.

U.S. Imperialism — A policy of extending the United States’ power and influence through territorial acquisition, economic control, and military intervention. Prominent during the late 19th and early 20th Centuries, it involved annexing territories like Hawaii, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico following the Spanish-American War (1898). Driven by economic interests, strategic concerns, and a belief in spreading Democracy and civilization, Imperialism led to a significant expansion of U.S. influence.

Anti-Imperialists — A group of Americans in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries who opposed U.S. Imperialism and the annexation of foreign territories. They argued that Imperialism violated democratic principles and the nation’s founding ideals of self-determination. Prominent Anti-Imperialists included Mark Twain and Andrew Carnegie. Their opposition peaked during debates over the Philippines following the Spanish-American War but failed to prevent U.S. Imperialist policies.

William McKinley (1843–1901) —The 25th President of the United States (1897–1901), McKinley led the nation during the Spanish-American War, which resulted in U.S. territorial expansion with the acquisition of Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. He championed Protective Tariffs, the Gold Standard, and economic growth. McKinley was re-elected in 1900 but assassinated in 1901, making Theodore Roosevelt his successor.

Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919) — The 26th President of the United States (1901–1909), Roosevelt was known for his progressive domestic policies, such as trust-busting and conservation, and assertive foreign policy, epitomized by “Big Stick Diplomacy.” He mediated the Russo-Japanese War, earned a Nobel Peace Prize, and oversaw the construction of the Panama Canal. His Presidency marked the emergence of the United States as a global power.

“Little Brown Brothers” in the Philippines

Guerrilla Warfare and American Response in the Filipino Insurrection

• Defeated Filipino armies resorted to brutal tactics and guerrilla warfare.
• American troops retaliated with brutality.
• The American public was shocked by the atrocities committed by U.S. forces.
• U.S. forces established Reconcentration Camps.
• Although the U.S. had good intentions in fighting the Spanish-American War, actions in the Philippines tarnished them.
• Emilio Aguinaldo was captured in 1901, weakening the insurrection, though sporadic fighting continued.

Reconcentration Camps — Reconcentration Camps were facilities established by Spanish forces in Cuba during the 1890s to isolate rural populations and suppress support for Cuban insurgents. Conditions in these camps were harsh, with overcrowding, starvation, and disease. Reports of these camps outraged the American public and fueled support for U.S. intervention in the Spanish-American War, leading to greater involvement in Cuba’s fight for independence.

The White Man’s Burden — “The White Man’s Burden” is a poem published by Rudyard Kipling in 1899 that encouraged Western nations, particularly the United States, to colonize undeveloped areas. It portrayed Imperialism as a moral duty to civilize non-Western peoples. The poem became a justification for U.S. actions in the Philippines and other territories despite its controversial racial overtones and imperialist rhetoric.

Establishing Governance in the Philippines

• President McKinley appointed the Philippine Commission in 1899 to address governance in the Philippines.
• William Howard Taft led the Commission.
• Taft formed a strong bond with the Filipino people, calling them his “little brown brothers.”
• He engaged in Filipino cultural activities, such as dancing with Filipino women.
• Despite Taft’s engagement with the people, American soldiers continued to hold disdain for the Filipinos.

Philippine Commission — The Philippine Commission was established in 1899 to oversee the administration of the Philippines following the Spanish-American War. Initially led by Jacob Schurman and later by William Howard Taft, the Commission sought to establish civil governance and prepare the Philippines for eventual self-rule. It implemented reforms in education, infrastructure, and public health while consolidating American control, though it faced resistance from Filipino Nationalists during and after the Filipino-American War.

William Howard Taft (1857–1930) — The 27th President of the United States (1909–1913) and later Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, William Howard Taft was a prominent Republican leader. Before his Presidency, he served as the first civilian Governor-General of the Philippines (1901–1904), where he implemented reforms to stabilize governance and improve infrastructure. As president, Taft promoted “Dollar Diplomacy,” focusing on economic investments to influence foreign policy, particularly in Latin America and Asia.

Jacob Schurman (1854–1942) — A diplomat, educator, and the first President of Cornell University, Schurman led the First Philippine Commission (1899–1900). Tasked with assessing conditions in the Philippines after the Spanish-American War, the Commission recommended establishing civil governance under U.S. control. Schurman’s work influenced U.S. policy in the Philippines and tried to balance efforts to stabilize the region with America’s territorial ambitions.

Filipino Nationalists — Filipino Nationalists were Filipinos who sought independence from foreign control. Led by people like Emilio Aguinaldo, they initially fought against Spanish rule and later resisted U.S. annexation during the Philippine-American War. They formed the Philippine Republic in 1899 but were overwhelmed by U.S. forces.

McKinley’s Benevolent Assimilation of the Philippines

• McKinley’s policy of “benevolent assimilation” advanced slowly and faced resistance from Filipinos.
• The U.S. invested millions of dollars in the Philippines to improve roads, sanitation, and healthcare.
• Economic ties grew between the U.S. and the Philippines, including the sugar trade.
• American teachers established a strong school system and introduced English as a second language.
• Filipinos resented forced Americanization and prioritized their liberty and freedom over the modernization efforts pushed by U.S. officials.
• The Philippines gained independence on July 4, 1946.
• During the U.S. occupation, thousands of Filipinos emigrated to America.

Benevolent Assimilation — Benevolent Assimilation was a foreign policy measure announced by President McKinley in 1898. It justified U.S. governance of the Philippines after the Spanish-American War. It portrayed American rule as a mission to civilize Filipinos through education, infrastructure, and economic reforms. The policy was met with Filipino resistance, leading to the Filipino-American War. Anti-Imperialists criticized it as being an imperialist policy.

Philippines Independence Day — Celebrated annually on June 12, it marks the declaration of Philippine independence from Spanish rule in 1898. Proclaimed by Emilio Aguinaldo in Kawit, Cavite. Though initially short-lived due to U.S. occupation following the Spanish-American War, the day remains vital to the Philippine national identity. The Philippines achieved complete independence from the United States on July 4, 1946.

Hinging the Open Door in China

The Open Door Policy was a U.S. diplomatic initiative proposed by Secretary of State John Hay in 1899 and 1900 that sought to ensure equal trading rights for all nations in China while preserving China’s territorial integrity. It intended to prevent any single power from monopolizing trade within its sphere of influence. The policy reflected U.S. interests in maintaining access to Chinese markets and limiting European and Japanese dominance.

Growing Foreign Influence and U.S. Concern in China

• After China’s defeat by Japan in the First Sino-Japanese War, Russia and Germany followed suit, seizing territories in China and taking economic control.
• They carved out “spheres of influence” from China’s weakened Manchu Government.
• American churches started to worry missionaries would be unable to travel to China.
• U.S. manufacturers and exporters worried European monopolies would block access to Chinese markets.
• Public pressure from the American press and British free-trade advocates pushed the U.S. to take action.
• Secretary of State John Hay, known for his literary and diplomatic skills, responded to the crisis with the “Open Door Policy.”

Sino-Japanese Wars — The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) marked Japan’s rise as a regional power, as it defeated China’s influence in Korea, leading to the Treaty of Shimonoseki. The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) was part of World War II, involving Japan’s invasion of China, which led to atrocities like the Nanjing Massacre and significant Chinese resistance.

John Hay (1838–1905) — U.S. Secretary of State from 1898 to 1905, known for promoting the Open Door Policy, which advocated equal trade access to China among major powers while preserving China’s territory. Hay also negotiated treaties such as the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, enabling the Panama Canal’s construction, and played a key role in shaping U.S. Foreign Policy during the Age of Imperialism.

The Open Door Policy in China

• Secretary Hay issued the Open Door Note (1899) to major world powers, asking them to respect Chinese territorial and trade rights.
• He asked them to maintain fair competition within their leaseholds and spheres of influence.
• The term “Open Door” quickly became popular and widely recognized.
• Italy accepted the proposal because it had no interest in China, while other nations agreed conditionally.
• The Russian response was ambiguous. Technically, it declined, but Hay interpreted the response as acceptance.
• The U.S. implemented the Open Door Policy with questionable support, contributing to its weakness.

Leaseholds — Territories in China and other regions where foreign powers obtained exclusive control over economic and administrative functions without full sovereignty. Established during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, leaseholds like Hong Kong (British) and Port Arthur (Russian) allowed imperial powers to exploit resources and establish strategic bases.

Spheres of Influence — Areas in which foreign nations claimed exclusive rights to trade, investment, and influence, often within weaker states like China during the late 19th Century. These areas allowed powers such as Britain, Japan, and Russia to dominate economically and politically without direct colonization. The Open Door Policy sought to limit the monopolization of these regions, promoting equal trade opportunities and preserving China’s territory.

The Boxer Rebellion

• In 1900, Chinese nationalists, known as the “Boxers,” launched an uprising against foreign control called the “Boxer Rebellion.”
• Their slogan was “Kill Foreign Devils.”.
• During the Rebellion, over 200 missionaries and other foreigners were killed.
• The Boxers besieged foreign diplomats in Beijing (Peking).

Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901) — A violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising in China from 1899 to 1901, led by the “Boxers,” a secret society opposed to Western influence and Imperialism. The rebellion targeted foreign nationals, missionaries, and Chinese Christians. An international coalition, including the U.S., intervened to suppress the revolt, resulting in the Boxer Protocol (1901), which imposed harsh penalties on China and reinforced foreign dominance.

Boxer Protocol (1901) — Signed in 1901, this treaty ended the Boxer Rebellion in China. It imposed severe reparations on China, totaling 450 million taels of silver, and allowed foreign troops to remain in Beijing for protection. The protocol also mandated the punishment of Boxer leaders and restricted China’s ability to import weapons and ammunition. It increased foreign control of China.

Multinational Response to the Boxer Rebellion

• A multinational force of 18,000 soldiers, including 2,500 Americans, was sent to China to suppress the Rebellion.
• This joint military action conflicted with U.S. traditions of nonentanglement and noninvolvement.
• The victorious Allies imposed a $333 million indemnity on China, of which $24.5 million was allocated to the U.S.
• The U.S. remitted (canceled) about $18 million, using the excess to promote goodwill.
• China used the funds to educate selected students in the U.S., who later contributed to the Westernization of Asia.

Nonentanglement — Nonentanglement is a foreign policy principle that advocates that a nation should avoid forming alliances or becoming involved in conflicts between other countries. In the U.S., George Washington suggested this in his Farewell Address.

Noninvolvement — A policy or stance of refraining from participation in international political, military, or economic affairs, emphasizing neutrality and focusing on domestic concerns.

Indemnity — An indemnity is a compensation or payment made by a defeated nation to a victorious one for damages caused during a conflict. Victors in war were often imposed indemnities in treaties to cover war expenses, as seen in the Boxer Protocol (1901).

Remit — To cancel, reduce, or send a payment for a debt or penalty. In historical contexts, it often refers to governments forgiving reparations or financial obligations owed by another nation.

Reparations — Reparations refer to payments or compensation made by a defeated country to the victors after a conflict to address damages caused by war. They often include financial payments, resources, or territorial concessions. A notable example is the reparations imposed on Germany after World War I under the Treaty of Versailles, which aimed to cover war damages but contributed to economic hardships and political instability in Germany.

Expansion of the Open Door Policy

• Secretary Hay issued a new circular note expanding the Open Door Policy in 1900.
• The revised policy included China’s territorial integrity, along with its commercial integrity.
• Hay sought to prevent foreign powers from using the Boxer Rebellion as an excuse to divide China.
• China avoided partition, though this outcome was likely due to rivalries among competing powers rather than Hay’s diplomacy.

Imperialism or Bryanism in 1900?

President McKinley’s Renomination in 1900

• Heading into the 1900 Presidential Election, the Republican Party expected to nominate President McKinley for a second term.
• His accomplishments included leading the U.S. through a victorious war, acquiring new territories, and establishing the Gold Standard.
• Republicans credited McKinley for delivering economic prosperity and the “full dinner pail.”
• An influential Senator, Mark Hanna, advocated for McKinley’s steady policies with the slogan, “We’ll stand pat!”
• The Republican Party Platform endorsed prosperity, the Gold Standard, and overseas expansion.

Gold Standard — A monetary system in which the value of a country’s currency relates to the amount of gold it has. Under this system, the value of money is stable but limits currency supply to the Gold Reserves. In the U.S., debates over maintaining the Gold Standard versus adopting Bbimetallism, which included silver, were central to late 19th-century economic and political conflicts.

Gold Reserves — The quantity of gold a country’s central bank or government holds as a financial asset to support its currency and stabilize its economy. Gold Reserves were crucial under the Gold Standard, ensuring that people could redeem paper money for gold. They also served as a measure of national wealth and economic security.

Full Dinner Pail — A slogan used by William McKinley’s presidential campaign in 1896 and 1900 to emphasize economic prosperity and job security. It referenced the promise of a stable economy under Republican leadership, appealing to working-class voters amid concerns about industrial growth and financial uncertainty.

Mark Hanna (1837–1904) — A prominent industrialist and Republican political strategist who managed William McKinley’s presidential campaigns. Known for his fundraising and media tactics, Hanna was instrumental in McKinley’s victory in 1896. He advocated for pro-business policies, the Gold Standard, and a modernized approach to campaigning, which reshaped U.S. electoral politics.

Theodore Roosevelt’s Vice-Presidential Nomination

• Theodore Roosevelt gained fame during the Spanish-American War.
• His popularity contributed to his election as Governor of New York.
• Political Bosses in New York found Roosevelt hard to control.
• The Bosses sought to remove him from New York politics, so they pushed for him to be the Republican candidate for Vice President.

Political Bosses — Political Bosses were influential leaders who controlled local or regional political machines during the late 19th and early 20th Centuries. They gained influence by securing votes through patronage, favors, and sometimes corruption. One of the most well-known was William “Boss” Tweed of New York’s Tammany Hall. While Bosses provided help for immigrants and the poor, they often undermined the democratic processes and were involved in widespread corruption.

Roosevelt at the 1900 Republican Convention

• Roosevelt stood out at the Republican Convention, wearing a cowboy hat.
• He initially resisted the nomination for Vice President because the office had a reputation as a political “burying ground.”
• Supporters chanted, “We want Teddy!” persuading him to accept.
• Roosevelt received a unanimous vote, excluding his own.
• Mark Hanna, alarmed by Roosevelt’s unpredictability, called him a “wild-eyed madman” and “that damned cowboy.”

Democrats Nominate William Jennings Bryan

• The Democratic Convention in Kansas City nominated William Jennings Bryan.
• By this time, the Free Silver issue, once central to his platform, was irrelevant.
• Bryan still insisted on including a Free Silver in the Party Platform, frustrating many Democrats.
• The main issue in the Democratic Party Platform was opposing the Republican plan for overseas expansion.

William Jennings Bryan (1860–1925) — A prominent American politician, orator, and three-time Democratic nominee for President (1896, 1900, 1908). Known for his advocacy of Free Silver, he delivered the famous “Cross of Gold” speech, opposing the Gold Standard and promoting economic reforms for farmers and laborers. A leader of the Populist Movement, Bryan also championed causes associated with the Progressive Movement, like Anti-Imperialism and Social Reform. Later, he gained attention for his role in the 1925 Scopes Trial, defending his religious principles.

Free Silver — Free Silver was a popular political movement in the late 19th Century that called for the unlimited coinage of silver to expand the money supply and promote inflation. Farmers and laborers supported Free Silver, hoping it would address economic hardships caused by deflation under the Gold Standard. The movement was championed by the Populist Party and Democratic leader William Jennings Bryan, notably in his 1896 “Cross of Gold” speech.

Cross of Gold Speech (1896) — William Jennings Bryan gave the Cross of Gold Speech at the 1896 Democratic National Convention. He called for free coinage of silver to expand the money supply and alleviate the economic hardships felt by farmers and laborers. Bryan criticized the Gold Standard, famously declaring, “You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.” The speech boosted the Populist and Democratic Parties, securing Bryan’s nomination for President. Many view the speech as a symbol of the era’s economic struggles between agricultural and industrial interests.

Party Platform — A Party Platform is a formal statement of a political Party’s principles, policies, and goals, outlining its stance on key issues such as the economy, healthcare, foreign policy, and social programs. Platforms are typically adopted at National Party Conventions and serve as a guide for candidates and voters.

The 1900 Presidential Campaign

• President McKinley campaigned from the front porch of his home in Ohio.
• William Jennings Bryan traveled extensively, attacking Imperialism and Republican-backed trusts.
• Roosevelt actively campaigned to support McKinley, drawing crowds with his cowboy theatrics and patriotic fervor.
• Roosevelt successfully undermined Bryan’s support, particularly in the Midwest.
• Democrats focused on Imperialism, arguing that McKinley’s policies implemented slavery in the Philippines.
• Republicans countered by framing “Bryanism” as a threat to the U.S. economy.
• Voters prioritized economic stability and prosperity, symbolized by the slogan “Four Years More of the Full Dinner Pail.”

McKinley’s Front Porch Campaign (1896) — McKinley’s Front Porch Campaign was a strategy used by William McKinley during the 1896 presidential election. He conducted speeches and met with delegations from the porch of his home in Canton, Ohio. This low-key approach contrasted with his opponent, William Jennings Bryan, who went on extensive speaking tours. Managed by Mark Hanna, the campaign emphasized stability, prosperity, and the Gold Standard, effectively appealing to business interests and middle-class voters and contributing to McKinley’s victory.

Results of the 1900 Presidential Election

• McKinley won reelection by a wider margin than in 1896, securing 7,218,491 to 6,356,734 popular votes and 292 to 155 electoral votes.
• The election failed to provide a clear mandate for or against overseas expansion.
• Many voters supported McKinley for economic policies despite disliking expansion, and others supported Bryan’s Anti-Imperialism but feared Free Silver.
• Voters chose prosperity and protection over concerns about overseas expansion.
• Political Boss Thomas Platt anticipated Roosevelt’s transition to the Vice Presidency, viewing it as removing him from New York politics.

Thomas Collier Platt (1833–1910) — An influential American politician and Republican leader from New York, Platt served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1873–1877) and briefly in the Senate in 1881. He was a member of the Republican Party’s Stalwart Faction. Known as a Political Boss, he was influential in New York politics. His maneuvering led to Theodore Roosevelt’s nomination as Vice President in 1900.

Stalwart Faction of the Republican Party — The Stalwarts were a conservative faction in the Republican Party in the late 19th Century, led by people like Roscoe Conkling. Stalwarts supported the Spoils System, favoring Political Patronage over civil service reform. Their opponents within the Party were the more reform-minded Half-Breeds. The Stalwarts played a key role in the contested Presidential Election of 1880, ultimately supporting the nomination of James Garfield for President, with Chester A. Arthur, a Stalwart, as his Vice President. The Stalwarts waned after the Pendleton Act (1883) started civil service reform.

Half-Breed Faction of the Republican Party — The Half-Breeds were a moderate faction in the Republican Party that advocated for civil service reform and opposed the patronage-focused politics championed by the Stalwart Faction. Led by people like James G. Blaine, the Half-Breeds sought to modernize the party by reducing corruption and promoting merit-based appointments. Their rivalry with the Stalwarts influenced key political debates and decisions, including the contentious Republican nomination of James Garfield in the 1880 Presidential Election.

TR: Brandisher of the Big Stick

The Assassination of McKinley and Roosevelt’s Ascension

• President McKinley was assassinated in September 1901 by Leon Czolgosz, a self-professed anarchist.
• Theodore Roosevelt became President. At 42, he was the youngest President in American history.
• Roosevelt promised to continue McKinley’s policies, although critics were skeptical.

McKinley Assassination — The Assassination of President William McKinley occurred on September 6, 1901, during a public reception at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York. Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist, shot McKinley, who died from his wounds on September 14, 1901. McKinley’s death led to Theodore Roosevelt’s presidency and marked a turning point in U.S. history, ushering in the Progressive Era with a focus on reform and modernization.

Anarchist — An Anarchist is a person who advocates for the abolition of structured government and hierarchical authority, seeking a society based on voluntary cooperation and mutual aid. Anarchists often oppose Capitalism, centralized power, and perceived institutional oppression. In the late 19th and early 20th Centuries, labor movements and political violence were associated with anarchism.

Background of Theodore Roosevelt

• Born into a wealthy New York family, Roosevelt overcame asthma through rigorous self-discipline and exercise.
• He graduated from Harvard with Phi Beta Kappa honors.
• At age 24, he published the first of approximately 30 books.
• Roosevelt worked as a ranch owner and cowboy in the Dakotas, earning the nickname “Four Eyes.”
• He held several political positions before becoming President.
• Physically, he was barrel-chested, 5 feet 10 inches tall, with distinctive teeth, squinty eyes, a droopy mustache, and a piercing voice.

Phi Beta Kappa — Founded in 1776 at the College of William and Mary, it is the oldest academic honor society in the United States. Phi Beta Kappa recognizes outstanding achievement in the liberal arts and sciences and promotes intellectual excellence and scholarship. Undergraduates who demonstrate high academic performance, integrity, and a commitment to pursuing knowledge gain membership.

Roosevelt’s Energetic Personality and Philosophy

• Roosevelt was energetic and inspiring, often shaking hands with thousands of people or riding his horse.
• He surrounded himself with athletic friends, nicknamed “the tennis cabinet.”
• Roosevelt enjoyed conflict, calling it “an elegant row,” and frequently promoted vigorous virtues over pacifism.
• He criticized “flubdubs” and “mollycoddles” for their perceived weakness.
• A strong advocate of military and naval readiness, he popularized the phrase, “Speak softly and carry a big stick.”
• Roosevelt believed strength and preparedness allowed nations to achieve their goals without excessive rhetoric.
• Known for his “Big Stick Diplomacy,” he combined authority with a commanding voice.

Big Stick Diplomacy — A foreign policy approach associated with President Theodore Roosevelt, emphasizing using military power to achieve diplomatic goals. Derived from Roosevelt’s phrase, “Speak softly and carry a big stick,” it reflected a willingness to negotiate while maintaining a strong military as a deterrent peacefully. This policy was notably applied in Latin America and the Caribbean, including constructing the Panama Canal and the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, asserting U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere.

Roosevelt’s Unconventional Personality

• Roosevelt drew attention wherever he went, even at weddings and funerals.
• He enjoyed breaking long-standing traditions and norms that he felt were outdated.
• His self-confidence often blended with a sense of moral superiority, giving him a reputation as egotistical.
• He would boldly call people who disagreed with him liars.
• Overall, he was friendly and openly mingled with people of all ranks.
• He enjoyed competition, even after being blinded in his left eye during a boxing match with a military aide at the White House in 1905. However, he did not reveal this injury to the public until 1918

Roosevelt as a Moralizer and Politician

• Roosevelt used the Presidency to promote virtue and reform.
• Despite his convictions, he was pragmatic and willing to compromise to make progress.
• Politically moderate, he positioned himself slightly left of center but resisted extremes on both sides.
• He was a skilled politician with a devoted personal following, known for his magnetic personality.
• His charisma captivated the public, making him a popular figure and a frequent subject of media attention.
• Roosevelt’s persona, including his cowboy hat, bear-hunting exploits, and pince-nez glasses, entertained cartoonists and the public alike.
• He was loyal to the Republican Party but disliked corrupt Political Bosses and only worked with them when necessary.

Pragmatic — Or Pragmatism, refers to a practical approach to decision-making and problem-solving, focusing on results and real-world effectiveness rather than abstract theories or ideologies. It emphasizes flexibility, adaptability, and achieving tangible outcomes.

Charisma — Charisma is a quality that inspires admiration and influence over others. Charismatic individuals often possess strong communication skills, confidence, and an ability to connect emotionally with people, making them effective leaders or public figures.

Pince-Nez Glasses — Pince-Nez Glasses were a popular style of eyeglasses in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries. They are recognizable by a frame that pinches onto the nose without ear support.

Roosevelt’s Bully Pulpit

• Roosevelt believed in an active and dynamic Presidency.
• He prioritized progress and momentum, often at the expense of adherence to tradition or procedure.
• Lacking legal training, he criticized the law and courts for being slow and inefficient.
• Roosevelt showed limited regard for the Checks and Balances between government branches, occasionally bypassing the Constitution.
• He believed the President could take any action in the public interest unless explicitly forbidden by law.
• His approach to Congress combined coercion and compromise to push his agenda.

Bully Pulpit — A term coined by Theodore Roosevelt, referring to the Presidency as a powerful platform to advocate for policies and influence public opinion. During the Progressive Era, “bully” meant “excellent” or “admirable.” Roosevelt used the Bully Pulpit to draw attention to issues and lead national discussions, effectively promoting Progressive reforms and shaping public discourse on social, economic, and foreign policy matters.

Colombia Blocks the Canal

The Panama Canal Project was a monumental engineering effort completed by the United States between 1904 and 1914. The Panama Canal connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through the Isthmus of Panama. Initially attempted by a French company in the 1880s, the project faced setbacks due to financial mismanagement and disease. Under U.S. leadership, significant advancements in sanitation, led by William C. Gorgas, and engineering, led by George Washington Goethals, ensured its success. The canal revolutionized global trade by dramatically reducing maritime travel time, establishing the U.S. as a dominant force in international commerce and politics.

Theodore Roosevelt and the Need for an Isthmian Canal

• Roosevelt had a strong understanding of global affairs.
• After the Spanish-American War, the U.S. sought to build a canal through Central America to make the U.S. Navy more mobile and effective.
• A canal would enhance the defense of U.S. territories like Puerto Rico, Hawaii, and the Philippines.
• It would also support the operations of the American Merchant Marine, making them more efficient.

Canal — An artificial waterway constructed to connect bodies of water, facilitating transportation and trade. Notable examples include the Panama Canal, which links the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, significantly reducing maritime travel time. Canals have historically been vital for commerce, industry, and military strategy.

Merchant Marine — The Merchant Marine is a fleet of commercial ships owned by a nation. During peacetime, it transports goods and passengers. In times of war, it often supports military efforts by carrying troops, supplies, and equipment.

Legal Challenges and the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty

• The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty blocked the U.S. from taking exclusive control of a canal in Central America.
• By 1901, Britain was willing to negotiate due to European tensions and the Boer War in South Africa.
• The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901) granted the U.S. the right to build and fortify an Isthmian Canal.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850) — The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was an agreement between the United States and Great Britain that prohibited either nation from exclusive control over a future canal across Central America. It established cooperation and neutrality regarding such a canal. As U.S. ambitions grew, new agreements replaced the treaty.

Boer War (1899–1902) — The Boer War was a conflict between the British Empire and the Boers (Dutch settlers) in South Africa. Disputes over territory and resources caused the war, which ended with a British victory and control over the Boer Republics.

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901) — An agreement between the U.S. and Britain nullifying the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, granting the U.S. the right to build and control an Isthmian Canal. It ensured the canal would remain open to ships of all nations during peacetime.

Isthmus of Panama — A narrow strip of land connecting North and South America, separating the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Its strategic location made it ideal for a canal, reducing maritime travel times between oceans. The construction of the Panama Canal, completed in 1914, transformed the isthmus into a vital hub for global trade and military strategy. During the California Gold Rush, it was a significant route for goods and people.

Deciding the Canal Route

• The U.S. had to choose the canal’s location, which came down to Nicaragua or Panama.
• Many experts preferred Nicaragua for its geography and feasibility.
• The French Canal Company failed in Panama, so it sought to recover its investments and pushed the U.S. to choose Panama.
• Philippe Bunau-Varilla represented the French interests.
• The New Panama Canal Company reduced its asking price for the Panama route from $109 million to $40 million, making it a more attractive option than Nicaragua.

French Canal Company — Formed in 1879, the Company sought to construct a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. Varis’s challenges and failures led to the company’s bankruptcy in 1889, halting the project. Ferdinand de Lesseps led the company.

Philippe Bunau-Varilla (1859–1940) — Philippe Bunau-Varilla was a French engineer and key advocate for U.S. construction of the Panama Canal. As a New Panama Canal Company representative, he helped negotiate the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903), which secured U.S. rights to build the canal after Panama gained its independence from Colombia.

New Panama Canal Company — The successor to the original French Canal Company, it inherited the unfinished canal project in Panama. Under Philippe Bunau-Varilla’s leadership, it sold its assets and canal rights to the United States in 1904 for $40 million, allowing for the canal’s completion.

U.S. Chooses Panama Canal Route

• In 1902, Congress decided to build the canal through Panama.
• However, Panama was still part of Colombia.
• The U.S. negotiated a treaty with Colombia that was highly favorable to America.
• The treaty granted the U.S. a lease for a Canal Zone six miles wide in perpetuity (forever) in exchange for $10 million and an annual payment of $250,000.

Colombia Rejects the Treaty

• The Colombian Senate rejected the treaty, believing it was worth more than the negotiators had agreed to.
• Roosevelt was outraged because he wanted to secure the canal before the 1904 Election.
• The U.S. eventually learned Colombia would have approved the treaty if it had been willing to pay an additional $15 million upfront.

Uncle Sam Creates Puppet Panama

The Separation of Panama from Colombia occurred on November 3, 1903, when Panama declared independence from Colombia with support from the United States. The U.S. sent naval forces to block Colombian interference. Soon after, the U.S. signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty with the new Panamanian government, securing control over the Canal Zone and ensuring the construction of the Panama Canal.

Panama Revolts Against Colombia

• Panamanians, who had rebelled against Colombia before, were ready for another revolt.
• They were concerned they would lose the canal project and its economic benefits to Nicaragua.
• Philippe Bunau-Varilla was concerned about losing his company’s $40 million deal and aligned with Panamanian revolutionaries.
• He organized a small army, including members of the Panamanian fire department.
• Bunau-Varilla reportedly bribed 500 Colombian troops with $100,000 to support the revolution.

The Panama Revolution and U.S. Interference

• The Panama Revolution took place on November 3, 1903.
• Colombian troops prepared to suppress the rebellion, but U.S. naval forces blocked them from crossing the isthmus.
• Roosevelt justified U.S. intervention using a broad interpretation of the Bidlack Treaty (1846).
• The treaty obligated the U.S. to maintain free transit across the isthmus.

Bidlack Treaty (1846) — Signed in 1846 between the United States and New Granada (modern-day Colombia and Panama), this treaty guaranteed the United States rights to transit across the Isthmus of Panama. In return, the United States pledged to protect New Granada’s sovereignty over the Isthmus. The treaty set the stage for constructing the Panama Canal and American influence in Central America.

U.S. Recognition of Panama and the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty

• Roosevelt recognized Panama’s independence three days after the Revolution.
• Philippe Bunau-Varilla became the Panamanian Minister and negotiated with the U.S.
• The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed 15 days after the uprising.
• The price of the Canal Zone remained $10 million.
• The treaty widened the Canal Zone from 6 to 10 miles.
• The French Canal Company received $40 million from the U.S. as part of the agreement.

Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903) — Signed on November 18 between the United States and Panama, it granted the U.S. control over the Panama Canal Zone in exchange for $10 million and an annual payment of $250,000. Negotiated by Philippe Bunau-Varilla, representing Panama, the treaty gave the U.S. the right to build and manage the canal. It was controversial, as many Panamanians believed it infringed on their sovereignty. However, it enabled the completion of the Panama Canal in 1914.

U.S. Involvement in the Panama Revolution and Its Aftermath

• Roosevelt likely did not directly orchestrate the rebellion, but his views encouraged the insurgents to take action.
• The insurgents expected Roosevelt to prevent Colombia from stopping them.
• Roosevelt’s actions made it appear he was collaborating with the insurgents.
• The incident tarnished the U.S.’s reputation, with critics calling Roosevelt’s approach “cowboy diplomacy.”
• European imperialists mocked America’s moral superiority and pointed out the hypocrisy of its actions.

Cowboy Diplomacy — A term used to describe a reckless, aggressive, and forceful approach to foreign policy.

Completing the Canal and Appeasing Colombia

The Impact of Panama’s Separation and Roosevelt’s Defense

• The U.S. seizure of Panama increased tensions with Latin America, which carried over from the Cuban Revolution and the Spanish-American War.
• The way the U.S. treated Colombia demonstrated the vulnerability of smaller Latin American Republics to U.S. dominance and was an example of the “Big Brother Policy.”
• Roosevelt justified his actions by claiming a “mandate from civilization” and accusing Colombia of obstructing progress.
• Roosevelt ignored the feasible alternative of the Nicaragua route for the canal, which did not require revolution but would have caused delays.
• Political urgency from the upcoming 1904 Presidential Election likely influenced his push for the Panama Canal.

Big Brother Policy — A U.S. foreign policy initiative in the late 19th Century that sought to create closer economic and political ties with Latin American countries. Secretary of State James G. Blaine wanted to assert U.S. influence in the Western Hemisphere and impede European intervention. It laid the groundwork for the Pan-American Conference (1889) and led to the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.

Pan-American Conference (1889) — The Pan-American Conference was a meeting held in Washington, D.C., to promote cooperation and trade among the nations of the Americas. Led by U.S. Secretary of State James G. Blaine, it sought to strengthen economic ties and resolve disputes peacefully. The Conference established the International Bureau of the American Republics, a precursor to the Organization of American States (OAS), an early effort toward regional diplomacy.

Challenges and Progress in Building the Panama Canal

• Construction of the Panama Canal started in 1904.
• It struggled early due to labor disputes and environmental issues like landslides.
• Colonel George Washington Goethals, a West Point engineer, led the project.
• Sanitation was prioritized over excavation in the early stages to address health risks.
• Colonel William C. Gorgas successfully eradicated Yellow Fever in the Canal Zone, making it “as safe as a health resort.”

George Washington Goethals (1858–1928) — George Washington Goethals was an American civil engineer and U.S. Army officer who served as chief engineer of the Panama Canal from 1907 to its completion in 1914. Goethals was key to overcoming technical and logistical challenges, including the construction of locks and managing the workforce. He served as the first Governor of the Panama Canal Zone (1914–1917).

William C. Gorgas (1854–1920) — William C. Gorgas was a U.S. Army physician whose efforts in controlling tropical diseases, notably Yellow Fever and malaria, were crucial to building the Panama Canal. By implementing widespread sanitation measures and mosquito control programs, Gorgas reduced worker mortality rates, enabling the canal project to proceed. He was the 22nd Surgeon General of the U.S. Army (1914–1918).

Yellow Fever — Yellow Fever is a deadly viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes prevalent in tropical regions during the late 19th and early 20th Centuries. It caused high mortality among workers during the early phases of the Panama Canal construction. Effective mosquito control measures played a key role in eradicating the disease in the Canal Zone.

Completion of the Panama Canal

• The U.S. completed the Panama Canal in 1914.
• The project cost approximately $400 million and was finished just as World War I started.
• English writer James Bryce described the canal as “the greatest liberty Man has ever taken with Nature.”

James Bryce (1838–1922) — James Bryce was a British historian, politician, and diplomat known for his writings on American democracy. His most famous work, The American Commonwealth (1888), analyzed U.S. political institutions, society, and culture, providing a detailed, largely positive account of American Democracy. Bryce also served as the British Ambassador to the U.S. (1907–1913).

Roosevelt’s Modification of the Monroe Doctrine

President Theodore Roosevelt announced his Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904. This extension of the Monroe Doctrine declared that the U.S. would intervene in the financial affairs of Latin American countries to maintain stability and order, preventing European involvement in the region.

Latin American Debt Defaults and European Intervention

• Many Latin American nations, including Venezuela and the Dominican Republic, frequently defaulted on debts they owed to European creditors, including Britain and Germany.
• In 1903, German warships sank two Venezuelan gunboats and bombarded a town to force Venezuela to pay its debts.
• These actions increased the potential for European military and political involvement in the Western Hemisphere.

Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

• Roosevelt was concerned about potential violations of the Monroe Doctrine.
• He responded by introducing the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine
• Also known as “preventive intervention,” it allowed the U.S. to intervene in the financial affairs of Latin American nations.
• Under his policy, the U.S. would manage customs, pay off debts, and prevent European involvement in the Western Hemisphere.
• It effectively made the U.S. the “Policeman of the Caribbean” and asserted its dominance over Latin American nations.

U.S. Intervention in the Dominican Republic

• In 1905, the U.S. assumed control of tariff collections in the Dominican Republic.
• The two nations formalized the arrangement in 1907 with a treaty called the “Convention Between the United States of America and the Dominican Republic.”
• Dominican officials, accustomed to profiting from corruption, initially resisted the treaty but eventually conceded.
• The agreement successfully managed Dominican debt payments and prevented European interference.

The Roosevelt Corollary: A New Policy Under an Old Name

• The Roosevelt Corollary expanded the original concept that President James Monroe introduced in 1823.
• While Monroe warned European powers against intervention in Latin America, Roosevelt took specific measures to prevent their intervention.
• Some see the Corollary as a departure from Monroe’s initial purpose, effectively creating a new U.S. foreign policy.
• Roosevelt gained public and political support by associating the Corollary with the Monroe Doctrine.

The Bad Neighbor Policy and U.S. Intervention in Cuba

• The Roosevelt Corollary is criticized for contributing to developing the “Bad Neighbor Policy.”
• Latin Americans increasingly resented intervention, viewing it as an excuse for U.S. domination rather than protection.
• However, in 1906, unrest in Cuba prompted its President to request U.S. intervention.
• Roosevelt sent U.S. Marines to Cuba, who remained there until 1909, supporting the perception of U.S. overreach.
• These actions deepened Latin American distrust of U.S. intentions and increased hostility toward its influence.

Bad Neighbor Policy — The Bad Neighbor Policy describes U.S. intervention in Latin America during the late 19th and early 20th Centuries. It focuses on the perception of the U.S. as overbearing and exploitative, often undermining sovereignty through military interventions and economic dominance. It contrasts with the later Good Neighbor Policy, which aimed to improve U.S.-Latin American relations.

Roosevelt on the World Stage

Roosevelt’s Role in the Russo-Japanese War

• Roosevelt expanded his international diplomacy during the Russo-Japanese War.
• Russia sought control over ice-free ports in Manchuria, particularly Port Arthur. 
• Japan viewed it as a threat to its security.
• Russian troops had occupied Manchuria since the Boxer Rebellion and delayed withdrawal to complete the Trans-Siberian Railroad.
• Japan started hostilities by launching a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur. A string of victories over Russian forces followed this.
• Japan’s historic victories marked the first significant military defeat of a European power by a non-European power since the 16th Century.
• As the war dragged on, Japan faced a shortage of resources and sought Roosevelt’s help to set up peace negotiations with Russia.

Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) — Russia and Japan went to war over territorial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. Japan’s decisive victories, particularly in naval battles, marked the first time an Asian power defeated a European nation in modern warfare. The war shifted global power dynamics, showcasing Japan’s military prowess and Russia’s vulnerabilities.

Roosevelt Mediates Peace in the Russo-Japanese War

• In 1905, Roosevelt facilitated peace talks between Russia and Japan in Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
• Japan demanded a large indemnity and all of Sakhalin Island, while Russia refused to acknowledge the extent of its defeat.
• Roosevelt brokered a compromise: Japan received no indemnity and only the island’s southern half.
• Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for mediation and arranging the 1906 Algeciras Conference to discuss disputes in North Africa.

Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) — This treaty ended the Russo-Japanese War. Negotiated in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, with U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt mediating, it recognized Japan’s dominance in Korea and ceded control of southern Sakhalin and parts of Manchuria to Japan.

Algeciras Conference (1906) — The participants sought to resolve the First Moroccan Crisis, a dispute over French and German claims in Morocco. The conference recognized Morocco’s independence while granting France and Spain control over policing and financial matters. It dealt with growing tensions between European powers, particularly Germany and the Franco-British alliance, which contributed to the buildup to World War I.

Japanese Laborers in California

U.S. Tension with Japan and the “Yellow Peril”

• Despite Roosevelt’s recognition, relations with Japan deteriorated, leading to resentment toward Japanese living in the U.S.
• Japanese immigration to the U.S. started after 1884 when laborers were allowed to work abroad, initially on Hawaii’s sugar plantations.
• Afterward, many Japanese moved from Hawaii to California, where they worked as farm laborers, railroad workers, and servants.
• Like Chinese immigrants before them, Japanese immigrants performed dangerous, low-paying jobs and were not allowed to become U.S. citizens.
• Japanese immigrants faced hostility and discrimination.
• Although they accounted for less than 3% of California’s population, they were considered a threat and called the “Yellow Peril,” fuelling discriminatory policies and propaganda against the Japanese.

San Francisco School Segregation Crisis and International Tensions

• In the aftermath of the San Francisco Earthquake, the city’s school board segregated Chinese, Japanese, and Korean students into a separate school to make more space for American students.
• The segregation sparked outrage in Japan, where racial discrimination was a national insult.
• The American and Japanese media fueled tensions, and rumors of war started to spread.
• Roosevelt met with the school board members at the White House to discuss the issue.
• San Francisco Mayor Eugene Schmitz, under investigation for corruption, also attended the meeting.

San Francisco Earthquake (1906) — This earthquake, which Occurred on April 18, 1906, had a magnitude of approximately 7.9 and devastated the city and surrounding areas. It caused widespread destruction, including fires that burned much of the city. It resulted in over 3,000 deaths and left hundreds of thousands of people homeless.

San Francisco School Segregation (1906) — In 1906, the San Francisco Board of Education implemented a policy segregating Japanese students into separate schools, citing overcrowding. This action increased tensions between the U.S. and Japan because the Japanese felt it was discriminatory and disrespectful. The two nations resolved the controversy with the Gentlemen’s Agreement (1907). Japan limited emigration to the U.S., while San Francisco rescinded the segregation policy, easing diplomatic relations. However, the policy was an example of growing anti-Asian sentiment in America.

The Gentlemen’s Agreement and the Great White Fleet

• Roosevelt successfully mediated the crisis, and the school board repealed the segregation order.
• The resolution included the “Gentlemen’s Agreement,” a secret diplomatic understanding between the U.S. and Japan.
• In return for ending school segregation, Japan agreed to stop issuing passports to laborers heading to the U.S. mainland, reducing immigration.
• Despite the Agreement, the Pacific Coast Race Riots (1907) increased tensions with Japan, and rumors of war started again.
• Roosevelt responded with a demonstration of U.S. naval strength.
• He sent a fleet of 16 U.S. Navy ships, all painted white, on a voyage around the world to showcase American naval power. Newspapers referred to the ships as the “Great White Fleet.”

Gentlemen’s Agreement (1907) — The Gentlemen’s Agreement was an informal agreement between the United States and Japan, negotiated by President Roosevelt, to address tensions over Japanese immigration. Japan agreed to limit the emigration of laborers to the U.S., while the U.S. promised to address discrimination against Japanese immigrants, particularly in California.

Pacific Coast Race Riots (1907) — The Pacific Coast Race Riots were violent anti-Asian riots in cities like Vancouver, British Columbia, and Bellingham, Washington. The riots were fueled by economic competition and racial tensions as Asian immigrants, particularly Japanese, Chinese, and Indian laborers, were blamed for taking jobs from American citizens.

Great White Fleet — The name of a U.S. naval fleet sent on a world tour from 1907 to 1909 by President Roosevelt to demonstrate American naval power. The fleet consisted of 16 battleships painted white and symbolized America’s emerging role as a global power. The Fleet’s voyage sought to create goodwill and show the country’s readiness to defend its interests, particularly in the Pacific.

The Great White Fleet and the Root-Takahira Agreement

• The Great White Fleet sailed from Virginia in December 1907.
• Latin America, Hawaii, New Zealand, and Australia enthusiastically received the fleet.
• Japan hosted an extraordinary welcome, with schoolchildren waving American flags and singing “The Star-Spangled Banner” in English.
• The visit promoted diplomacy, leading to the Root-Takahira Agreement of 1908.
• The U.S. and Japan agreed to respect each other’s Pacific territories and uphold the Open Door policy in China.
• Roosevelt viewed the voyage as a key contribution to peace, avoiding war with Japan.
• The fleet’s journey popularized the Navy’s recruiting slogan: “Join the Navy and See the World.”
• The fleet returned to Virginia in February 1909 after visiting 20 ports of call on six continents.

Root-Takahira Agreement (1908) — Signed between the United States and Japan, this agreement sought to ease tensions and affirm mutual interests in the Pacific Region. It recognized the status quo in Asia, including Japan’s control over Korea and the U.S. territorial holdings in the Philippines. Both nations agreed to uphold the Open Door Policy in China and respect each other’s Pacific possessions.

Struggling for Justice at Home and Abroad in the Progressive Era

The notes on this page are based on the 16th edition of The American Pageant. We have expanded on the source material with additional details, corrections, and links to Encyclopedia Entries that explain topics in more detail. For more information, including terms and definitions, see the following:

• AP US History — Units and Topics
• Chapter 28 — America on the World Stage
• Chapter 29 — Progressivism and the Republican Roosevelt
• Chapter 30 — Wilson Progressivism at Home and Abroad
• Chapter 31 — The War to End War
• Chapter 32 — American Life in the Roaring Twenties
• Chapter 33 — Politics of Boom and Bust
• Chapter 34 — Great Depression and the New Deal
• Chapter 35 — Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Shadow of War
• Chapter 36 — America in World War II