America Secedes from the Empire

America’s Road to Independence from Great Britain

By the time the Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia in May 1775, the American Revolutionary War was underway. Following the Battles of Lexington and Concord, American forces trapped the British in Boston.

Congress was hesitant to embrace the war effort and issued the Olive Branch Petition, a final appeal to King George III to end hostilities. However, the war escalated with the Battle of Bunker Hill, the British Invasion of New York, and the American Invasion of Quebec. 

At various times, the American war and the Patriot Cause seemed lost. And every time, Americans rose to the occasion and pulled off dramatic victories that saved the nation. 

On Christmas Night of 1776, George Washington crossed the Delaware River and shocked the Hessians at Trenton. A few days later, he won another stunning victory at the Battle of Princeton.

In 1777, British forces invaded the Hudson River Valley, only to be stopped at Saratoga. Although Philadephia fell to the British, Washington fought them to a draw at the Battle of Monmouth. The American efforts on the battlefield convinced France to publicly recognize the United States and provide economic and military support (see Franco-American Alliance).

While the war in the North came to a stalemate, the British focused on taking control of the Southern Colonies. The campaign was successful and led to the capture of Charleston and most of the American army in the South.

However, the tide turned again when Americans shocked the British with victories at Kings Mountain and Cowpens. British forces fell back to Yorktown to receive fresh troops and supplies but were hemmed in by a French fleet on the Chesapeake Bay and American forces on the ground. Eventually, Washington arrived with his army and a French Army, and the British were forced to surrender.

Afterward, Great Britain agreed to cede territory to the United States and, most importantly, recognize it as an independent nation.

The Second Continental Congress

At the end of the First Continental Congress, the delegates took two important steps. First, they approved the Articles of Association, establishing a nationwide boycott against British goods, known as the Continental Association. Second, they agreed that if Britain did not repeal the Intolerable Acts, they would reconvene in May 1775.

Bloodshed at Lexington and Concord

• Bloodshed at Lexington and Concord happened in April 1775.
• It was a clarion call to arms.
• About 20,000 musket-bearing “Minute Men” surrounded Boston.
• The British were outnumbered and trapped.

The Second Continental Congress Begins

• The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775.
• All 13 colonies were represented.
• The conservative element in Congress was still strong.
• There was no clear sentiment for independence yet.
• Congress hoped to continue fighting to convince the king and Parliament to address grievances.
• Congress drafted new appeals to the British people and king, which were rejected.
• Anticipating rejection, delegates also took measures to raise money and create an army and navy.
• The British and Americans were on the brink of all-out warfare.

Congress Drafts George Washington

As the Siege of Boston continued, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress asked the Second Continental Congress to take responsibility for the New England Army of Observation. Congress reluctantly agreed and established the Continental Army. George Washington was selected to be the Commander-in-Chief of the new army.

George Washington’s Appointment

• The Continental Congress selected George Washington to lead the improvised army besieging Boston.
• Washington was a member of Congress and already in an officer’s uniform.
• The choice was made with considerable misgivings.
• Washington was a tall, powerful, dignified Virginia planter, aged 43.
• He had never risen above the rank of a Colonel in the Virginia Militia.
• His largest command had been only 1,200 men, and that was 20 years earlier.
• During the war, Washington would lose more battles than he won.

George Washington’s Leadership Qualities

• Washington had outstanding powers of leadership and immense strength of character.
• He radiated patience, courage, self-discipline, and a sense of justice.
• Washington was more a great moral force than a great military mind.
• He served as a symbol and a rallying point.
• People instinctively trusted him and believed he was committed to the cause.
• Washington insisted on serving without pay but kept a careful expense account totaling more than $100,000.
• He reprimanded his steward for providing supplies to the enemy under duress.
• He would have preferred the enemy to burn his mansion rather than supply them.

Political Reasons for Choosing Washington

• Congress chose Washington largely for political reasons.
• His leadership qualities were only dimly perceived at the time.
• Americans in other regions were beginning to distrust the large New England army around Boston.
• A commander from Virginia was prudent, as it was the largest and most populous colony.
• Washington, being wealthy by inheritance and marriage, couldn’t be seen as a fortune seeker.
• As an aristocrat, he was expected to control “the excesses of the masses.”

Bunker Hill and Hessian Hirelings

While Congress looked to find ways to resolve the issues with Britain through diplomatic means, military operations continued. In a strategic move, Ethan Allen, Benedict Arnold, and the Green Mountain Boys captured Fort Ticonderoga. Six weeks later, American forces occupied Breed’s Hill, overlooking Boston Harbor. The British responded by launching an assault on the American position. Although the British won the Battle of Bunker Hill, they suffered heavy casualties in the first true battle of the war. From then on, King George III made a series of decisions that made it clear that diplomacy would not bring an end to the war.

Contradictory Conflict

• The clash of arms continued with contradictions.
• Americans affirmed their loyalty to the king and voiced a desire to resolve issues.
• Simultaneously, they raised armies and fought against His Majesty’s soldiers.
• This inconsistent war lasted 14 months, from April 1775 to July 1776.
• The plunge into independence happened after these 14 months.

Increasing Tempo of Warfare

• The tempo of warfare gradually increased.
• In May 1775, Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold captured British garrisons at Ticonderoga and Crown Point in upper New York.
• They secured a priceless store of gunpowder and artillery for the Siege of Boston.
• In June 1775, colonists seized Bunker Hill (actually Breed’s Hill) and threatened the enemy in Boston.
• The British launched a frontal attack with 3,000 men instead of flanking the Americans.
• Sharpshooting Americans, numbering 1,500, mowed down the advancing redcoats.
• The colonists ran out of gunpowder and abandoned the hill in disorder.
• The French foreign minister remarked that with two more such victories, the British would have no army left in America.

AHC Note — According to legend, an American officer ordered his men to hold their fire until they saw the “whites of their eyes.” Whether this happened is unknown, but it is usually attributed to William Prescott or Israel Putnam.

The Olive Branch Petition and Rejection

• In July 1775, Congress adopted the “Olive Branch Petition.”
• The petition professed American loyalty to the crown and begged King George III to prevent further hostilities.
• After Bunker Hill, King George III rejected any hope of reconciliation.
• In August 1775, King George III formally proclaimed the colonies in rebellion, labeling skirmishes as treason, punishable by hanging.
• In September 1775, he arranged to hire thousands of German troops to crush the rebellion.
• Six German princes involved needed the money; one had 74 children.
• George III needed the men.
• Most hired soldiers came from Hesse, leading Americans to call all European mercenaries “Hessians.”

Reaction to the Hessian Deal

• News of the Hessian deal shocked the colonists.
• Colonists viewed the quarrel as a family issue.
• They were appalled by the use of outside mercenaries.
• The foreign Hessians had a reputation for butchery.

Hessian Soldiers’ Motivations

• Hessian soldiers were effective in a mechanical sense.
• Many were more interested in booty than duty.
• They were dubbed “Hessian flies.”
• American promises of land seduced hundreds of Hessians to desert.
• Many Hessian deserters remained in America and became respected citizens.

The Abortive Conquest of Canada

Congress reluctantly decided to invade Canada and gave General Philip Schuyler command of the operation. Despite early success, the operation ultimately failed to capture Quebec. Meanwhile, American forces pushed the British out of Boston and won key battles in North Carolina and South Carolina.

The Invasion of Canada and the Burning of Falmouth

• In October 1775, the British burned Falmouth (Portland), Maine, on the eve of winter.
• That autumn, the rebels launched a two-pronged invasion of Canada.
• American leaders mistakenly believed the French in Canada were eager to rebel against the British.
• A successful assault on Canada would add a 14th colony and deprive Britain of a valuable base.
• The invasion involved about 2,000 American troops.
• This large-scale attack contradicted the colonists’ claim of fighting defensively for grievances.
• The invasion was clearly offensive warfare.

The Failed Invasion of Canada

• The bold stroke for Canada narrowly missed success.
• One column, led by General Richard Montgomery, captured Montreal.
• Montgomery’s forces joined General Benedict Arnold’s bedraggled army at Quebec.
• Arnold’s men had been reduced to eating dogs and shoe leather during their march through the Maine woods.
• An assault on Quebec on the last day of 1775 was repelled.
• Montgomery was killed, and Arnold was wounded in one leg.
• The remnants of Arnold’s command retreated up the St. Lawrence River.
• French-Canadian leaders, treated well by the British in the Quebec Act of 1774, showed no desire to welcome the anti-Catholic invaders.

Early Victories for American Forces

• Americans continued to disclaim any desire for independence.
• On January 1, 1776, the British set fire to Norfolk, Virginia.
• In March 1776, the British evacuated Boston, taking leading friends of the king with them. Evacuation Day is still celebrated annually in Boston.
• In February 1776, American forces won a victory against 1,500 Loyalists at Moore’s Creek Bridge in North Carolina.
• In June 1776, the colonists defeated an invading British fleet at Charleston harbor.

AHC Note — George Washington and the Continental Army secured an early victory when the British left Boston — and never returned. In the Southern Theater, the victories at the Battle of Moore’s Creek Bridge and the Battle of Sullivan’s Island kept the British from taking control of the Southern Colonies. Although British forces started the fires during the Burning of Norfolk (January 1, 1776), American forces escalated the situation, which was downplayed by the Virginia Convention.

Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense

Thomas Paine was born in England but moved to Pennsylvania in 1774. Paine was a strong supporter of the Patriot Cause and wrote “Common Sense,” one of the most widely-read pieces of literature in Colonial America.

Uneven Support for Independence

• Loyalty to the empire was deeply ingrained.
• Many Americans saw themselves as part of a transatlantic community with Britain playing a leading role.
• Colonial unity was poor.
• The open rebellion was dangerous, especially against formidable Britain.
• Irish rebels were harshly punished, and American rebels feared similar treatment.
• As late as January 1776, Washington’s officers were still toasting the king’s health.
• “God save the king” had not yet been replaced by “God save the Congress.”

Awakening to Independence

• Americans were gradually shocked into awareness of their inconsistency.
• British acts like the burning of Falmouth and Norfolk, and the hiring of Hessians, jolted them awake.
• In 1776, the pamphlet Common Sense was published by Thomas Paine.
• Paine was a radical who had come from Britain a year earlier.
• Common Sense became a best-seller, reaching 120,000 copies in a few months.
• Paine branded the colonists’ indecision as contrary to “common sense.”
• He argued that nowhere in the universe did a smaller body control a larger one, questioning why Britain should control America.
• Paine referred to the king as “the Royal Brute of Great Britain.”

Paine and the Idea of “Republicanism”

Paine called for independence, based on the ideals of Republicanism. This included a government based on the will of the people.

Paine Calls for Independence

• Paine’s protest was compelling, eloquent, and radical.
• It called for independence and the creation of a republic.
• Power would flow from the people, not a corrupt monarch.
• Paine used biblical imagery familiar to ordinary Americans.
• He argued that all government officials — governors, senators, and judges — should derive their authority from popular consent, not just representatives in a House of Commons.

Historical Context of Republicanism

• Paine was not the first to champion a republican form of government.
• Political philosophers have advanced republican ideas since classical Greece and Rome.
• These ideals were revived during the Renaissance and in 17th  Century England.
• Republicanism survived within the British “mixed government,” balancing the monarchy, nobility, and Parliament.
• It appealed to British politicians who were critical of excessive royal power.
• Their writings resonated with American colonists, who saw royal acts as a conspiracy to strip their liberties.
• Paine’s call to reject monarchy and embrace an independent republic found a receptive audience among the colonists.

Preparedness for a Republic

• Many settlers, especially New Englanders, practiced a form of Republicanism in democratic town meetings and annual elections.
• The Committees of Correspondence during 1774 and 1775 showed that republican government was feasible.
• There was no hereditary aristocracy, and landowning farmers enjoyed relative equality.
• This matched well with the republican rejection of a fixed hierarchy of power.

Importance of Citizen Virtue

• Most Americans saw citizen “virtue” as essential for a successful republican government.
• Without a central, all-powerful king, individuals in a republic needed to sacrifice personal self-interest for the public good.
• The collective good of “the people” was more important than individual rights and interests.
• Paine inspired Americans to see their country as fertile ground for cultivating civic virtue.

Debate Over Republicanism

• Not all Patriots agreed with Paine’s ultra-democratic Republicanism.
• Some favored a republic ruled by a “natural aristocracy” of talent.
• They wanted to end hereditary aristocracy but not all social hierarchy.
• Conservative republicans feared that too much liberty could destabilize social order.
• They were concerned as poorer farmers, tenants, and laborers embraced radical “leveling.”
• The debate over the nature of American Republicanism would continue for the next 100 years.

Jefferson’s “Explanation’’ of Independence

The push for independence was much stronger in the Second Continental Congress, and many of the colonial legislatures instructed their delegates to move in that direction. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a three-part resolution that included a declaration of independence. While Congress deliberated, a committee drafted a formal declaration. Independence was approved on July 2 and the Declaration of Independence was approved on July 4.

The Lee Resolution

• Members of Congress were instructed by their colonies to move toward independence.
• On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia moved that “these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states.”
• The motion was debated and adopted nearly a month later, on July 2, 1776.
• The passing of the Lee Resolution was the formal declaration of independence by the American colonies.
• John Adams predicted July 2 would be celebrated annually with fireworks.
• A formal explanation and inspirational appeal were needed to justify the rupture and to enlist support.
• This appeal aimed to enlist other British colonies, seek foreign assistance, and rally resistance at home.

Drafting the Declaration of Independence

• Shortly after Lee’s motion on June 7, Congress appointed a committee to draft an appropriate statement.
• The task of drafting fell to Thomas Jefferson, a 33-year-old Virginia lawyer.
• Jefferson was recognized as a brilliant writer despite his youth.
• The Declaration of Independence was approved by Congress on July 4, 1776, after some debate and amendment.
• It could have been called “The Explanation of Independence” or “Mr. Jefferson’s Advertisement of Mr. Lee’s Resolution.”

AHC Note — The members of the Committee of Five included Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut.

Jefferson’s Declaration

• Jefferson’s pronouncement was written in a lofty and magnificent style.
• He invoked the “natural rights” of all humankind, not just British rights.
• He argued that the King’s violation of these rights justified the colonies cutting their connection.
• Jefferson listed the tyrannous misdeeds of George III.
• The list included imposing taxes without consent, dispensing with trial by jury, abolishing valued laws, establishing a military dictatorship, maintaining standing armies in peacetime, cutting off trade, burning towns, hiring mercenaries, and inciting hostility among the Indians.

Jefferson’s One-Sided Argument

• Jefferson’s argument was one-sided.
• He acted as a prosecuting attorney, taking liberties with historical truth.
• His goal was to make history, not write it.
• The Declaration has been called “the world’s greatest editorial.”
• Jefferson owned many slaves, making his claim that “all men are created equal” a haunting contradiction for generations.

AHC Note — Jefferson is widely viewed as a controversial figure in American History and his views on slavery differed from his actions. For example, in the draft of the Declaration of Independence, he laid the blame for the perpetuation of slavery in America on the shoulders of King George III.

Impact of the Declaration of Independence

• The formal Declaration of Independence was made in hopes of helping to secure foreign aid.
• Patriots defying the King were now considered rebels, not subjects seeking reconciliation.
• Benjamin Franklin remarked that they must all hang together or hang separately.
• The Declaration included the pledge: “We mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes and our sacred honor.”

Impact of the Declaration of Independence

• The Declaration of Independence had a universal impact unmatched by any other American document.
• It became a source of inspiration for countless revolutionary movements against arbitrary authority.
• The Marquis de Lafayette hung a copy on his wall, leaving space for a future French Declaration of the Rights of Man.
• The French Declaration of the Rights of Man was officially born 13 years later.

Patriots and Loyalists

The American Revolutionary War was very much a series of wars within a larger conflict. Not only did Americans fight the British, but Americans fought each other. Patriots who supported independence engaged in a civil war with their neighbors, Loyalists who remained true to the Crown. In many places, such as South Carolina, the conflict was driven by age-old conflicts over religion and culture that carried over from the Old World.

War Within a War

• The American Revolutionary War was a war within a war.
• Colonials loyal to the king (Loyalists) fought American rebels (Patriots).
• Rebels also fought the British redcoats.
• Loyalists were called “Tories,” after the dominant political factions in Britain.
• Patriots were called “Whigs,” after the opposition factions in Britain.
• Patriots bitterly defined a Tory as “a thing whose head is in England, and its body in America, and its neck ought to be stretched.”

Struggle for Hearts and Minds

• The American Revolution was a minority movement.
• Many colonists were apathetic or neutral.
• Both sides contended for the allegiance and support of the civilian population.
• The British were inept in gaining popular support.
• Patriot Militias played a crucial role in political education and recruitment.
• The British could only control areas with a massive military presence.
• Once British forces moved on, rebel militias took over, sometimes using coercive means.
• The Patriot Militias were politically zealous and effective despite often lacking bayonets.
• They convinced many indifferent colonists to support the Patriot cause.
• Militias harassed small British detachments and occupation forces.
• A British officer noted that the Americans would be less dangerous with a regular army.

Loyalists and Divided Families

• Loyalists made up about 16% of the American population.
• Families often split over independence. One example is Benjamin Franklin supporting the Patriot side, while his son William Franklin, the last Royal Governor of New Jersey, supported the Loyalist cause.
• Loyalists were seen as tragic figures, having been taught fidelity to the Crown for generations.
• Loyalty to one’s family, friends, and country was generally regarded as a major virtue.
• Had the King triumphed, Loyalists would have been celebrated as Patriots, and rebels like Washington would have been disgraced, punished, and forgotten.

Loyalists and Revolutionaries

• Many educated, wealthy, cultured, and cautious people remained loyal to the crown.
• Loyalists were satisfied with their current situation and believed violent change would worsen it.
• Older generations were more likely to be Loyalists.
• Young people, full of energy and purpose, were the primary revolutionaries.
• Notable young revolutionaries included Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry.
• Patrick Henry’s famous declaration, “Give me liberty or give me death!” inspired the Patriot Cause.

Loyalist Demographics

• Loyalists included the King’s officers and other beneficiaries of the Crown.
• Many Anglican clergy and their congregations were Loyalists, having been taught submission to the King.
• Loyalists were most numerous in regions where the Anglican Church was strong.
• Virginia was an exception, with debt-burdened Anglican aristocrats joining the Patriot Cause.
• Loyalists were well entrenched in New York City, Charleston, Quaker Pennsylvania, and New Jersey.
• General Washington felt he was fighting in “the enemy’s country” in Pennsylvania and New Jersey.
• During the Continental Army’s Winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania farmers sold produce to the British for gold.

Loyalist and Patriot Strongholds

• Loyalists were the least numerous in the New England Colonies.
• New England had strong self-government and weak Mercantilism.
• Patriots were the most numerous where Presbyterianism and Congregationalism flourished, particularly in New England.
• British armies expressed their contempt by using “Yankee” churches as pigsties.

The Loyalist Exodus

Throughout the war, Loyalists faced persecution. Some, like Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania, were eventually found guilty of treason and had their property confiscated. Others, like Robert Rogers, served in the British Army. Rogers was likely involved in the capture of Nathan Hale, who was hanged by the British for spying. According to legend, Hales’ last words were, “I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country.”

Persecution of Loyalists

• Before the Declaration of Independence, persecution of Loyalists was relatively mild.
• Loyalists faced brutality, including Tarring and Feathering.
• After the Declaration, persecution intensified as Patriots sought a united front.
• Loyalists were seen as traitors by the Patriots.
• Loyalists were roughly handled, hundreds were imprisoned, and a few noncombatants were hanged.
• There was no wholesale reign of terror like in the later French Revolution and Russian Revolution.
• The colonists’ Anglo-Saxon regard for order and the prudence of leading Loyalists, who fled to British lines, prevented extreme violence.

Loyalist Displacement and Contributions

• About 80,000 loyal supporters of George III were driven out or fled.
• Several hundred thousand Loyalists were allowed to stay.
• The estates of fugitive Loyalists were confiscated and sold to help finance the war.
• About 50,000 Loyalist volunteers bore arms for the British.
• Loyalists served as spies for the British, incited Indians, and kept Patriot soldiers at home to protect their families.
• Ardent Loyalists were committed to their cause.
• The British made a major blunder by not fully utilizing Loyalists in the fighting.

AHC Note — British officials dramatically overestimated the commitment of Loyalists to the war effort. When the British launched the Southern Campaign in 1778, it was done with full confidence that thousands of Loyalists would rally to join the British. However, it was a contingent of Loyalists, under the command of Major Patrick Ferguson, who were routed at the Battle of Kings Mountain that started the collapse of the campaign.

General Washington at Bay

After leaving Boston, the British regrouped and then invaded New York. From late August to December 1776, General William Howe slowly pushed General George Washington and the Continental Army into Pennsylvania. Starting on Christmas Night, Washington carried out a series of bold moves, attacking Trenton and then Princeton. The victories pushed the British back toward New York and likely saved the American war effort.

British Focus on New York

• After evacuating Boston in March 1776, the British focused on New York as a base of operations.
• New York was a key seaport, centrally located, with many Loyalists.
• In July 1776, a massive British fleet appeared off New York.
• The fleet had about 500 ships and 35,000 men, the largest armed force in America until the Civil War.
• General Washington was dangerously outnumbered, with only 18,000 ill-trained troops to face the well-trained British army.

American Setbacks in 1776

• In the summer and fall of 1776, the Americans faced disaster.
• They were outgeneraled and outmaneuvered, leading to a rout at the Battle of Long Island.
• Panic seized the raw American recruits during the battle.
• Washington narrowly escaped to Manhattan Island, aided by favorable wind and fog.
• Retreating northward, he crossed the Hudson River into New Jersey and eventually reached the Delaware River with the British in close pursuit.
• The Patriot Cause was at a low point as Washington’s army escaped across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania.

AHC Note — Although the British were able to push the Continental Army out of New York, through New Jersey, and into Pennsylvania, there were heroic efforts that slowed the British pursuit. At the Battle of Long Island, General William Alexander and a contingent of troops, most from Maryland, successfully defended the American retreat. John Glover and his men evacuated the Continental Army from Long Island to Manhattan Island and then fought a significant delaying action at the Battle of Pell’s Point. The Americans secured a victory at the Battle of Harlem Heights, which saw General Nathanael Greene make his debut in the field. Green would go on to be one of Washington’s most valuable officers.

General Howe’s Missed Opportunity

• General William Howe, Washington’s adversary, did not quickly crush the demoralized American forces.
• Howe was not a military genius and remembered the heavy losses at Bunker Hill.
• The terrain was rough, and supplies were slow to arrive.
• As a professional soldier, Howe did not favor winter campaigning.
• He preferred the company of his mistress, the wife of a subordinate.
• American satirists had much ribald fun with this scandal.

AHC Note — Founding Father Francis Hopkinson wrote a song poking fun of Howe called “The Battle of the Kegs.”

Washington’s New Jersey Campaign

• Washington, nearly defeated, stealthily recrossed the ice-clogged Delaware River.
• On December 26, 1776, he surprised and captured 1,000 Hessians at Trenton who were sleeping off their Christmas celebration.
• A week later, he left his campfires burning as a ruse and defeated a smaller British detachment at Princeton.
• This New Jersey campaign, marked by these two critical victories, showcased Washington’s military brilliance.
• Washington’s cunning earned him the nickname “Old Fox.”

Burgoyne’s Blundering Invasion

During the winter of 1776-1777, British officials approved a plan to send an invasion force out of Canada into New York. The expedition was planned and led by General John Burgoyne. Although it started well, it eventually slowed down and met its demise at Saratoga, where Burgoyne was forced to surrender to General Horatio Gates. 

Meanwhile, General Howe moved out of New York City to capture Philadelphia. Although General Washington engaged him, Howe was successful. Congress was forced to evacuate while Washington and his army took refuge at Valley Forge. 

British Strategy for the Hudson River Valley

• London officials planned to capture the Hudson River valley in 1777.
• The goal was to sever New England from the other states and paralyze the American cause.
• The main invading force, led by General John “Gentleman Johnny” Burgoyne, would advance down the Lake Champlain route from Canada.
• General Howe’s troops in New York could move up the Hudson River to meet Burgoyne near Albany if needed.
• A smaller British force, commanded by Colonel Barry St. Leger, would approach from the west via Lake Ontario and the Mohawk Valley.

General Benedict Arnold’s Impact

• British planners did not account for General Benedict Arnold.
• After being repulsed at Quebec in 1775, Arnold retreated slowly along the St. Lawrence River to the Lake Champlain area.
• Arnold, through heroic efforts, kept his army in the field.
• The British pursued Arnold’s tattered force to Lake Champlain in 1776.
• The British needed to control Lake Champlain to move south, as it was essential for transporting supplies due to the lack of roads.

Arnold’s Heroic Defense

• The British stopped to construct a sizeable fleet on Lake Champlain.
• Tireless Arnold assembled and outfitted every floatable vessel he could find.
• Arnold’s tiny flotilla was destroyed after desperate fighting, but he won valuable time.
• Winter descended, forcing the British to retreat to Canada.
• General Burgoyne had to restart from Canada the following year.
• Arnold’s daring and skill prevented the British from recapturing Fort Ticonderoga in 1776.
• If Burgoyne had started from Fort Ticonderoga in 1777, he likely would have succeeded in his campaign.
• The American invasion of Canada in 1775 started to show its value.

Burgoyne’s Slow Progress and Howe’s Strategic Move

• General Burgoyne started his invasion with 7,000 regular troops.
• He was slowed by a heavy baggage train and many women, including officers’ wives.
• Progress was slow as axmen had to chop through the forest.
• American militiamen gathered on Burgoyne’s flanks.
• General Howe surprised many by not moving up the Hudson River to join Burgoyne.
• Instead, Howe embarked with the main British army to attack Philadelphia, the American capital.
• Howe aimed to force a general engagement with Washington’s army and destroy it.
• He believed this would leave the path open for Burgoyne.
• Howe assumed he had enough time to assist Burgoyne if needed.

Washington’s Challenges and Valley Forge

• General Washington moved his army to the vicinity of Philadelphia, keeping an eye on the British in New York.
• In late 1777, Washington was defeated at Brandywine Creek and Germantown.
• General Howe settled comfortably in Philadelphia, leaving Burgoyne to struggle in upper New York.
• Benjamin Franklin, in Paris, joked that Philadelphia had captured Howe.
• Washington retired to winter quarters at Valley Forge, 20 miles northwest of Philadelphia.
• Washington’s men at Valley Forge were frostbitten, hungry, and short of supplies.
• Despite the hardships, Baron von Steuben, a Prussian drillmaster, transformed the ragged troops into a professional army.

The Battle of Saratoga

• General Burgoyne began to bog down north of Albany as American militiamen swarmed around him.
• In a series of sharp engagements, Burgoyne’s army was trapped, and General Arnold was shot in the leg.
• The Americans drove back St. Leger’s force at the Battle of Oriskany.
• Unable to advance or retreat, Burgoyne surrendered his entire command at Saratoga on October 17, 1777, to American General Horatio Gates.
• The Battle of Saratoga ranks high among decisive battles in American and world history.
• The victory revived the faltering colonial cause.
• More importantly, it secured urgently needed foreign aid from France, helping ensure American independence.

AHC Note — The Battle of Saratoga was two separate battles. The first was the Battle of Freeman’s Farm and the second was the Battle of Bemis Heights.

Strange French Bedfellows

In November 1775, Congress established the Committee of Secret Correspondence. This committee was tasked with secretly communicating with foreign nations to secure aid, including ships, weapons, and ammunition. After the American victory at Saratoga, France publicly supported the United States.

French Interest in the American Revolution

• France was eager to inflame the conflict in America as revenge against Britain.
• Britain’s New World colonies were its most valuable overseas possessions.
• If Britain lost these colonies, it would cease to be a front-rank power, allowing France to regain its former position and prestige.
• The loss of prestige from the Seven Years’ War deeply rankled France.
• America’s cause became a fad in France, particularly among the bored aristocracy.
• The aristocracy was intrigued by the idea of American liberty and influenced by liberal thinkers like Rousseau.
• French officials were motivated by a realistic concern for France’s interests, not a love for America.
• Any alliance with America would be one of convenience for France.

French Covert Aid to the American Revolution

• After the Lexington in April 1775, French agents began secretly aiding the Americans.
• They provided lifesaving supplies of firearms and gunpowder through a sham company.
• About 90% of the gunpowder used by Americans in the first 2.5 years of the war came from French arsenals.
• Secrecy was crucial to avoid provoking Britain into declaring war, as France was still weakened from its recent defeat.
• France feared the American rebellion might fade out due to the colonies’ proclamations to patch up differences.
• The Declaration of Independence in 1776 showed America’s serious intent.
• The victory at Saratoga indicated the revolutionaries had a strong chance of winning their freedom.

British Response to Saratoga

• After the defeat at Saratoga in 1777, the British Parliament passed a measure offering Americans home rule within the empire.
• This offer included everything the colonials had asked for, except independence.
• To break up the British Empire, the French needed to act quickly.
• Benjamin Franklin, with his fur cap and witty sayings, captivated the French public and skillfully played on France’s fears of Anglo-American reconciliation.

French Alliance and Reluctance

• French King Louis XVI was initially reluctant to openly aid the Americans and risk war with Britain.
• His ministers convinced him, arguing that hostilities with Britain were inevitable to undo the peace of 1763.
• They feared that if Britain regained its colonies, it might seize the sugar-rich French West Indies.
• France decided to fight with an American ally rather than face both Britain and its reunited colonies later.
• In 1778, France offered the Americans a treaty of alliance, promising everything Britain offered plus independence.
• Both allies committed to waging war until the United States won its freedom and both agreed to terms with Britain.
• This was the first military alliance for the United States, later causing prolonged trouble.
• The American people, with isolationist tendencies, accepted the French alliance with distaste.
• They were aware it bound them to a hereditary foe and a Roman Catholic power.
• Despite misgivings, the alliance was necessary, as in a crisis, one accepts help regardless of the source.

AHC Note — The United States and France agreed to the Treaty of Amity and Commerce and the Treaty of Alliance.

The Colonial War Becomes a World War

After France joined the American war effort, Spain and Holland followed suit and the American Revolutionary War became a world war. Fighting spread to Europe, South America, the Caribbean, and Asia. Meanwhile, George Washington and the Continental Army fought the British to a draw at the Battle of Monmouth (June 28, 1778). Afterward, the British returned to New York, but a significant number of the Hessian troops abandoned the war effort. Washington remained in New Jersey, within striking distance of New York.

Global Expansion of the Conflict

• England and France came to blows in 1778, expanding the American Revolution into a global conflict.
• Spain joined the war against Britain in 1779, followed by Holland.
• Combined Spanish and French fleets outnumbered the British fleet.
• On two occasions, the British Isles appeared vulnerable to hostile warships.

Formation of the Armed Neutrality

• Weak maritime neutrals of Europe, affected by Britain’s dominance at sea, began demanding more respect for their rights.
• In 1780, Catherine the Great of Russia organized the Armed Neutrality.
• She later called it the “Armed Nullity.”
• The Armed Neutrality aligned almost all remaining European neutrals in passive hostility toward Britain.
• The war expanded to Europe, North America, South America, the Caribbean, and Asia.

America’s Victory and French Aid

• The statement “America, with some French aid, defeated Britain” simplifies the reality.
• The conflict in the New World became secondary for Britain, which was struggling for its life.
• The Americans kept the war going until 1778 with secret French aid.
• American independence was achieved only after the war expanded into a multipower world conflict.
• From 1778 to 1783, France provided the rebels with guns, money, immense amounts of equipment, about half of America’s regular armed forces, and nearly all of the new nation’s naval strength.

Strategic Shift Due to French Involvement

• France’s entrance into the conflict forced Britain to change its strategy in America.
• Previously, Britain relied on blockading the colonial coast and commanding the seas.
• French fleets in American waters, mainly to protect their West Indies islands, threatened Britain’s blockade and supply lines.
• The British decided to evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate their strength in New York City.

Battle of Monmouth

• In June 1778, as British forces withdrew, General Washington attacked them at Monmouth, New Jersey.
• The battle took place on a blisteringly hot day, causing scores of men to collapse or die from sunstroke.
• The battle was indecisive, with the British escaping to New York.
• About one-third of the Hessians deserted during the battle.
• Afterward, Washington stayed in the New York area, hemming in the British, except for the Yorktown interlude in 1781.

Blow and Counterblow

While the American and British armies were in a standoff in the North, the French entered into the war. Unfortunately, early operations involving the French were unsuccessful. This included the Battle of Rhode Island (August 29, 1778) and the Siege of Savannah (October 1779). After Savannah, the British executed their Southern Campaign and made their way toward Charleston, South Carolina. They captured the city — along with nearly the entire American Southern Army — in May 1780. The American war effort suffered another blow in September 1780 when it was discovered that Benedict Arnold was working with the British. Once again, American victory seemed lost. However, the tide turned in favor of the Americans after stunning victories at the Battle of Kings Mountain (October 7, 1780) and the Battle of Cowpens (January 17, 1781).

Arrival of French Troops

• In the summer of 1780, a French army of 6,000 regular troops arrived in Newport, Rhode Island.
• The army was commanded by the Comte de Rochambeau.
• Initial American suspicion of their former enemies led to several minor violent incidents between the allies.
• French gold and goodwill eventually improved relations.
• Social events, such as dancing parties with Puritan maidens, helped ease tensions.
• A French officer described the atmosphere as reminiscent of the “simple innocence of the Garden of Eden,” likely an exaggeration.
• No immediate military advantage came from the French reinforcement.
• Preparations were made for a potential Franco-American attack on New York.

Benedict Arnold’s Treachery

• American morale took a hit in 1780 when General Benedict Arnold turned traitor.
• Arnold was a brilliant and ambitious leader but also greedy and unscrupulous.
• He felt his valuable services were underappreciated.
• Arnold plotted with the British to sell the key stronghold of West Point, which commanded the Hudson River, for £6,300 and an officer’s commission.
• The plot was accidentally detected just in time.
• Arnold fled to the British.
• General Washington expressed his anguish with, “Whom can we trust now?”

British Strategy in the South

• The British planned to conquer the colonies starting in the South, where many Loyalists lived.
• Georgia was overrun by the British in 1778-1779.
• Charleston, South Carolina, fell to the British in 1780.
• The surrender of Charleston resulted in the capture of 5,000 men and 400 cannons.
• This loss was a heavier blow to the Americans, relative to their strength, than the loss of Burgoyne was to the British.

Intense Warfare in the Carolinas

• Warfare intensified in the Carolinas with Patriots fighting their Loyalist neighbors.
• Both sides often butchered prisoners after they had surrendered.
• The tide turned in late 1780 and early 1781.
• American riflemen wiped out a British detachment at King’s Mountain.
• They then defeated a smaller British force at Cowpens.
• In 1781, General Nathanael Greene, a Quaker-reared tactician, used a strategy of delay in the Carolina campaign.
• Greene stood and retreated, exhausting General Charles Cornwallis in pursuit.
• By losing battles but winning campaigns, Greene, the “Fighting Quaker,” cleared most of Georgia and South Carolina of British troops.

The Land Frontier and the Sea Frontier

The war was not confined to the Atlantic Coast. Intense fighting took place on the western frontier and at sea. On the frontier, the Iroquois Confederacy divided and the tribes aligned with the British carried out raids in New York and Pennsylvania. 

Meanwhile, George Rogers Clark led American forces in the Ohio Country and Illinois Country where he successfully captured key British outposts. In Kentucky, Daniel Boone fought to protect American settlements, while John Sevier and Isaac Shelby did the same in Tennessee.

On the high seas, the war effort was led by Privateers and the Continental Navy. While the foundation of the Navy was built on the efforts of Rhode Island, John Paul Jones rose to prominence as one of America’s first naval heroes.

Conflict in the West

• The West was ablaze during much of the war, with Indian allies of George III trying to protect their land.
• British agents, called “hair buyers,” allegedly paid bounties for American scalps.
• 1777 was known as “the bloody year” on the frontier.
• Two nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, the Oneidas, and the Tuscaroras, sided with the Americans.
• The Senecas, Mohawks, Cayugas, and Onondagas joined the British, urged on by Mohawk chief Joseph Brant.
• Brant, a convert to Anglicanism, believed a victorious Britain would restrain American expansion into the West.
• Brant and the British ravaged large areas of backcountry Pennsylvania and New York until checked by an American force in 1779.
• In 1784, the pro-British Iroquois signed the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, the first treaty between the United States and an Indian nation.
• The treaty forced the Indians to cede most of their land.

Westward Expansion During the War

• The human tide of westward-moving pioneers continued even during the war.
• Place names in Kentucky, such as Lexington (after the battle) and Louisville (after Louis XVI), testify to this movement.
• In the Illinois country, the British were vulnerable, holding only scattered posts captured from the French.
• Frontiersman George Rogers Clark conceived the idea of seizing these forts by surprise.
• In 1778-1779, Clark floated down the Ohio River with about 175 men.
• He captured the forts Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes in quick succession.
• Some argue, without definitive proof, that Clark’s success influenced the British to cede the region north of the Ohio River to the United States at the peace table in Paris.

America’s Early Navy

• America’s infant navy began laying the foundations of a brilliant tradition.
• The naval establishment consisted of only a handful of nondescript ships.
• These ships were commanded by daring officers, the most famous being John Paul Jones, a young Scotsman.
• The tiny naval force did not significantly impact Britain’s powerful fleets.
• Its main contribution was destroying British merchant shipping.
• This effort carried the war into the waters around the British Isles.

Impact of American Privateers

• More numerous and damaging than the regular American navy were swift privateers.
• Privateers were privately owned armed ships authorized by Congress to prey on enemy shipping.
• Over 1,000 American privateers, motivated by patriotism and profit, sailed forth with about 70,000 men — “sailors of fortune.”
• They captured around 600 British ships.
• British warships captured about the same number of American merchantmen and privateers.

Effects of Privateering

• Privateering diverted manpower from the main war effort.
• It involved Americans, including Benedict Arnold, in speculation and graft.
• Privateers brought in urgently needed gold.
• They harassed the enemy and raised American morale by providing victories during scarce times.
• British shipping was severely affected by privateers and the regular American navy.
• Insurance rates for British shipping skyrocketed.
• Merchant ships had to sail in convoy for protection.
• British shippers and manufacturers pressured Parliament to end the war on honorable terms.

Yorktown and the Final Curtain

Although the American economy was struggling, the prospects for winning the war improved. In the South, General Charles Cornwallis was unable to defeat General Nathanael Greene. Cornwallis took refuge in Yorktown, Virginia, and requested aid from General Henry Clinton, who was in New York. Meanwhile, a French fleet sailed from the West Indies to the Chesapeake Bay and effectively blocked the British Navy from providing support to Cornwallis. George Washington took advantage and mobilized American and French ground forces, who marched to Yorktown and laid siege to the city. As the Allied forces closed in on the city, Cornwallis surrendered. It was the last major battle of the American Revolutionary War.

Dark Period and Cornwallis’s Blunder

• The period of 1780–1781 was one of the darkest in the war.
• Inflation of the currency continued rapidly.
• The government, virtually bankrupt, declared it would repay debts at only 2.5 cents on the dollar.
• Despair and a sense of disunity spread, with mutinous sentiments affecting the army.
• British General Cornwallis blundered into a trap during futile operations in Virginia.
• Cornwallis retreated to the Chesapeake Bay at Yorktown, awaiting supplies and reinforcements by sea.
• He assumed Britain would maintain control of the sea.
• During this critical period, British naval superiority briefly slipped away.

The Siege of Yorktown

• The French were prepared to cooperate energetically in a decisive move.
• Admiral de Grasse, with a powerful fleet in the West Indies, informed the Americans of his availability to assault Cornwallis at Yorktown.
• General Washington swiftly marched over 300 miles from New York to the Chesapeake.
• Washington was accompanied by Rochambeau’s French army.
• Washington’s forces besieged the British by land, while de Grasse blockaded them by sea, defeating the British fleet.
• Cornwallis, completely cornered, surrendered his entire force of 7,000 men on October 19, 1781.
• Cornwallis’s band played “The World Turn’d Upside Down” during the surrender.
• The victory was as much French as American, with the French providing all the sea power and about half of the 16,000 besieging troops.

Aftermath of Yorktown

• Prime Minister Lord North was stunned by the news of Cornwallis’s surrender, exclaiming, “Oh God! It’s all over! It’s all over!”
• However, George III planned to continue the struggle, as Britain was far from defeated.
• Britain still had 54,000 troops in North America, including 32,000 in the United States.
• Washington returned with his army to New York to keep watch over the British force of 10,000 men.
• Fighting continued for over a year after Yorktown, with particularly savage Patriot-Loyalist warfare in the South.
• “No quarter for Tories” was a common battle cry.
• Washington’s key contributions included keeping the cause alive, the army in the field, and the states united during these critical months.
• His efforts were essential to achieving a satisfactory peace treaty.

Peace at Paris

Although negotiations were tense, a peace treaty was eventually agreed to that recognized the independent United States and extended its borders west to the Mississippi River.

British War Weariness and Political Change

• After Yorktown, despite George III’s eagerness to continue fighting, many Britons were weary of war and ready for peace.
• Britain had suffered heavy losses in India and the West Indies.
• The island of Minorca in the Mediterranean had fallen, and Gibraltar was under threat.
• Lord North’s ministry collapsed in March 1782, temporarily ending George III’s personal rule.
• A Whig ministry, more favorable to the Americans, replaced the Tory regime of Lord North.

American Peace Negotiators in Paris

• Three American peace negotiators gathered in Paris: Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay.
• Benjamin Franklin was aging but astute.
• John Adams was vigilant for New England’s interests.
• John Jay was impulsive and deeply suspicious of Old World intrigue.
• The envoys had explicit instructions from Congress to make no separate peace and to consult with their French allies at all stages.
• The American representatives chafed under this directive, aware it was influenced by the French Foreign Office guiding Congress.

France’s Delicate Position

• France had persuaded Spain to join the war by promising to deliver British-held Gibraltar.
• Gibraltar was resisting joint assaults by French and Spanish troops.
• Spain coveted the trans-Allegheny area, where American pioneers were settling.
• France wanted to weaken Britain’s empire by supporting American independence but desired a weak and manageable United States.
• France aimed to keep the new republic confined east of the Allegheny Mountains.
• A weak America would be easier for France to influence and control.
• France was paying a high price in men and treasure for America’s independence and wanted to ensure it benefited from this investment.

John Jay’s Secret Diplomacy

• John Jay was unwilling to follow France’s strategy.
• He was suspicious and believed the French could not satisfy both American and Spanish ambitions.
• Jay saw signs that the French Foreign Office might betray America’s trans-Allegheny interests to appease Spain.
• Contrary to his instructions from Congress, Jay made secret overtures to London.
• The British, eager to break the alliance, quickly came to terms with the Americans.
• A preliminary treaty of peace was signed in 1782, with the final peace treaty following in 1783.

Treaty of Paris of 1783

• The Treaty of Paris of 1783 formally recognized the independence of the United States.
• The United States received generous boundaries: west to the Mississippi, north to the Great Lakes, and south to Spanish Florida.
• The Americans retained a share in the Newfoundland fisheries, displeasing the Canadians.
• The Americans agreed not to further persecute Loyalists.
• Congress was to recommend that state legislatures restore confiscated Loyalist property.
• The states promised to allow British creditors to collect debts without legal obstacles.
• These assurances regarding Loyalists and debts were not fully honored, leading to future discord.

A New Nation Legitimized

The Treaty of Paris brought an end to the war but also put the United States on an uncertain path.

Generous Terms of the Treaty of Paris

• The United States received the enormous trans-Allegheny area, largely as a virtual gift.
• George Rogers Clark had captured only a small segment of this area.
• Britain’s generosity was motivated by its efforts to seduce America away from its French alliance.
• The peace terms were made as alluring as possible to achieve this goal.
• The shaky Whig ministry, more friendly to the Americans than the Tories, drafted the terms.
• The Whig ministry aimed to heal recent wounds, reopen trade channels, and prevent future conflicts over the trans-Allegheny region.
• This far-sighted policy was not continued by the Whig successors.

Conclusion of the American Revolution

• The Americans made a separate peace, contrary to the French alliance in spirit, but not in fact.
• The Paris Foreign Office formally approved the peace terms, despite being disturbed by America’s independent actions.
• France was relieved to end the costly conflict and escape its promises to Spain.
• America emerged as the sole significant beneficiary of the global war.
• The British, although soon to recover, were battered and beaten.
• The French, despite their revenge, faced bankruptcy and revolution.
• America gained independence and started its national journey with vast territory and a heritage of freedom.
• Fortune smiled on the Americans, who were uniquely favored in their quest for independence.

Additional Resources for America Secedes from the Empire

The notes on this page are based on the 16th edition of The American Pageant. We have expanded on the source material with additional details, corrections, and links to Encyclopedia Entries that explain topics in more detail. For more information, including terms and definitions, see the following:

• Advanced Placement United States History (APUSH) Units
• The Planting of English America (1500–1733)
• Settling the Northern Colonies (1619–1700)
• American Life in the 17th Century (1607–1692)
• Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution (1700–1775)
• The Duel for North America (1608–1763)