Overview
The French and Indian War lasted from 1754 to 1763. It was the last war between France and Britain for control of North America. Unlike other wars between the two nations, it started in North America and spread to Europe, where it became known as the Seven Years’ War.
The French gradually established a presence in North America, known as New France, starting with the settlement of Quebec in 1608. Soon after, they became involved in the Fur Trade with Native American Indians and set off the Beaver Wars, which lasted for nearly a century.
During this century, the French expanded their trade network from Quebec down through the Mississippi River Valley, where they established the port city of New Orleans. To protect their trade relationships with the Indians, the French established trading posts throughout the region and traveled as far west as the Rocky Mountains.
As New France expanded, it became a threat to the British Colonies in North America. Eventually, European wars that included France and Great Britain carried over to North America. A series of wars, collectively known as the French and Indian Wars, were fought over control of key regions like the Ohio Country, leading to the British conquest of North America. In 1763, France ceded nearly all of its territory in North America to Britain and Spain.
With the victory, the American Colonies looked to expand westward over the Allegheny Mountains. However, these plans were interrupted when an Indian uprising, Pontiac’s Rebellion, broke out and spread across the colonies. Although the rebellion died out, King George III took an unprecedented step and issued the Proclamation of 1763. It reserved the Ohio Country and land west of the Alleghenies for the Indians, who were now British subjects, as hunting grounds. However, it also banned colonists from living in the region. Those who were there were supposed to leave.
Americans viewed the Proclamation Line as a violation of their rights as Englishmen, making it the first cause of the American Revolution.
Thematic Focus
The thematic focus for Topic 3.2 is “America in the World.” The French and Indian War expanded to Europe as the Seven Years’ War, considered the first actual world war. In the events that followed, the American Colonies significantly increased their place in the British Empire. British officials were forced to end Salutary Neglect to deal with new social, political, and economic issues created by the war’s outcome. The approach they took contributed to the American Revolution, which led to the American Revolutionary War and, ultimately, the establishment of the independent United States of America.
Learning Objective
The Learning Objective for this topic is for students to be able to explain the causes and effects of the French and Indian War.
The causes of the French and Indian War were:
- France established a series of forts in the Ohio Country to strengthen its claim to the region and impede the westward expansion of the American Colonies.
- Lingering tensions between New France and the American Colonies from the previous French and Indian Wars, especially over the Fur Trade and territorial boundaries.
The effects of the French and Indian War were:
- France lost nearly all of its territory in North America.
- Britain gained control of the Ohio Country and Canada.
- Spain gained control of the Louisiana Territory.
- Indians revolted against the British in Pontiac’s Rebellion.
- King George III and the Board of Trade issued the Proclamation of 1763.
Historical Developments
The North American rivalry between Britain and France intensified in the mid-18th Century as the growing population of the British colonies expanded toward the interior of North America. This threatened the Fur Trade between France and Native American Indian tribes and also threatened Indian lands.
The British defeated the French in the war. In the Treaty of Paris, British territorial holdings in North America significantly increased. However, the cost of defending the territory and limiting Westward Expansion led British officials to change their policies toward governance and taxation in the colonies. Parliament enacted laws that raised revenue from the Colonies. However, Americans had no say in these laws because they did not have representation in Parliament.
In the aftermath of the war, Britain faced opposition from Indians, who sought to maintain control of their ancestral lands. Led by the Ottawa chief, Pontiac, they staged a series of attacks against British forts and settlements along the frontier in what is known as Pontiac’s War. To appease the Indians and help end the war, King George III issued the Proclamation of 1763. It prohibited Americans from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains and reserved the western lands for the Indians as hunting grounds.
Review Video
This video from Heimler’s History provides an excellent overview of Topic 3.2.
Review Notes
American History Central includes notes students can use to study APUSH topics. The relevant notes for this topic are:
- Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution (1700–1775)
- The Duel for North America (1608–1763)
- America Secedes from the Empire (1775–1783)
Terms and Definitions
The following terms and definitions cover essential topics related to Topic 3.2 and link to content on American History Central that provides a deeper understanding of each topic. Terms and definitions are organized according to the APUSH Themes:
- American and National Identity
- Work, Exchange, and Technology
- Migration and Settlement
- Politics and Power
- America in the World
- Geography and the Environment
- Culture and Society
American and National Identity
Albany Plan of Union
Benjamin Franklin proposed the Albany Plan of Union, which called for the formation of a permanent federation of the American colonies. The plant was based on his “Short Hints” that he wrote en route to Albany.
Covenant Chain
The Covenant Chain was a treaty, represented by a wampum belt, that allied the Iroquois Confederacy with the British Colonies. It was renewed with meetings between Iroquois leaders and British agents, including William Johnson, during the Albany Congress in 1754.
Iroquois Confederacy
The Iroquois Confederacy, also known as the Haudenosaunee or Six Nations, was a powerful alliance of six Native American tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. Formed before European contact, the Confederacy was known for its sophisticated political system and influential role in the Fur Trade and colonial affairs.
Join or Die
Benjamin Franklin published a famous cartoon in the Pennsylvania Gazette on May 9, 1754. The cartoon depicted the separate colonies as parts of a disjointed snake and was accompanied by the slogan “Join, or Die.”
Ohio Company of Virginia
The Ohio Company of Virginia (1748–1769) was a land speculating company in Virginia formed to encourage settlement of the Ohio Country and to establish trade with Indian tribes living in the region. After receiving a grant for 200,000 acres of land, the Company built a warehouse at Will’s Creek and cut the Nemacolin Road over the Allegheny Mountains. However, the company invited French resistance, which ultimately led to the Battle of Jumonville Glen and the Battle of Fort Necessity, triggering the French and Indian War.
Paxton Case (1761)
Paxton v. Gray was a critical court case in which James Otis argued that Writs of Assistance were illegal and violated the British Constitution. Following the death of King George II, new Writs needed to be issued to British customs officials in the name of King George III. A group of Boston merchants protested and hired Otis to represent them in court. Although Otis lost the case, he delivered a famous speech that helped lay the foundation for the ideology of the American Revolution. John Adams witnessed the speech and noted that Otis also argued that the Writs violated the natural rights of man, the legality of search and seizure, and lawful entry. Adams also said Otis used the phrase, “Taxation without representation is tyranny.” Years later, Adams recalled the speech and wrote, “Otis was a flame of fire…American Independence was then and there born.”
Sugar Act Crisis (1764)
The Sugar Act Crisis was caused by the passage of the Currency Act and Sugar Act in 1764, along with rumors of the pending Stamp Act. American political leaders, including Samuel Adams, Stephen Hopkins, and James Otis, responded with pamphlets outlining their opposition to the Sugar Act and Taxation Without Representation. At least one incident of violence took place when Rhode Islanders at Fort George fired on the British ship, St. John.
Stamp Act Crisis (1765–1766)
The Stamp Act Crisis was caused by the passage of the Stamp Act in 1765. The Crisis led to violence against British officials, including tax collectors, stamp agents, and governors. Riots took place in larger cities like Boston and New York. The groups that became known as the Sons of Liberty helped organize the civil unrest but quickly moved away from violence and turned their attention to political protest. This led to the organization of the Stamp Act Congress and Committees of Correspondence.
American and National Identity — People (Americans)
Daniel Boone
Daniel Boone is an American legend who is famous for his exploits as a Frontiersman during the Colonial Era and the early days of the United States. Boone played an essential role in the settlement of Kentucky by blazing the Wilderness Road, an important step toward the era of Westward Expansion and Manifest Destiny. Boone volunteered with other men from North Carolina to take part in Braddock’s Expedition to recapture Fort Duquesne from the French and was present at the Battle of the Monongahela.
George Croghan
George Croghan was an Irish-born fur trader who operated in the Ohio Country. He served as a Deputy Indian Agent under William Johnson and was responsible for negotiating with Indians in the region.
Christopher Gist
Christopher Gist was a Frontiersman who surveyed the Ohio Country for the Ohio Company of Virginia. He also accompanied George Washington on his expeditions to the Ohio Country in 1753 and 1754. Gist was at the Battle of Fort Necessity and was part of Braddock’s Expedition.
William Johnson
William Johnson was the British Superintendent of Indian Affairs. He played a significant role in managing the British relationship with the Iroquois Confederacy and was responsible for negotiating treaties, including the Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768). He led British forces during the French and Indian War and Pontiac’s Rebellion. His troops often included British regulars, colonial militia, and Native American Indian warriors.
Daniel Morgan
Daniel Morgan was an officer in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He commanded backwoods riflemen during several engagements, including the Siege of Boston and the Battle of Quebec. In 1782, he led American forces to victory at the Battle of Cowpens. Morgan, who was Daniel Boone’s cousin, also served as a teamster for Braddock’s Expedition and was at the Battle of the Monongahela.
Israel Putnam
Israel Putnam was a military veteran who was affectionately known as “Old Put.” He served bravely at the Battle of Bunker Hill but fell out of favor with George Washington after he failed against British forces in New York and Philadelphia. During the French and Indian War, he was a member of “Rogers’ Rangers” and fought with Robert Rogers in the battles around Lake George and Lake Champlain. His time with Rogers gave him a reputation as a skilled frontier fighter. He is recognized as one of America’s first true military heroes.
Robert Rogers
Robert Rogers was a frontiersman who rose to fame during the French and Indian War. He is known for founding Rogers’ Rangers and his 28 Rules of Ranging. Although he died poor and destitute, the United States Rangers and popular culture keep his memory alive. Rogers was a Loyalist during the American Revolutionary War and is believed to have captured Nathan Hale while he was conducting his spy mission for George Washington.
John Stark
John Stark commanded New Hampshire troops during the American Revolutionary War. He fought in the Battle of Bunker Hill and led the American forces to victory at the Battle of Bennington. During the French and Indian War, Stark served with Rogers’ Rangers in the campaigns around Lake George and Lake Champlain. In 1756, Rogers chose Stark as his Second Lieutenant.
American and National Identity — People (Europeans)
Jeffery Amherst
Jeffery Amherst was a prominent British officer during the French and Indian War. He is most famous for leading British forces to victory over New France, which helped Great Britain gain dominance in Colonial America. Following the war, Amherst sought to end the British practice of providing “gifts” to Indians, which they viewed as essential for maintaining political alliances. Despite warnings from experienced British officers familiar with Indian politics, Amherst persisted with his policy change, which contributed to the outbreak of Pontiac’s Rebellion in 1763.
Edward Braddock
Edward Braddock was the commander-in-chief of British forces in North America during the 1755 campaign of the French and Indian War. He led the failed British Expedition that was ambushed at the Battle of the Monongahela.
Thomas Gage
Thomas Gage was a British officer who served as commander-in-chief of British forces in North America and as the Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the early days of the American Revolution. Gage served in Braddock’s Expedition and survived the Battle of the Monongahela. He led a failed attack on Fort Carillon in 1758 and was wounded. From 1759 to 1760, he served under Jeffery Amherst during the operations against Quebec. In 1760, Amherst appointed him Military Commander of Montreal.
George Grenville
George Grenville was the Prime Minister of Great Britain and was responsible for implementing policies that caused the American Revolution. His policies are known as the Grenville Acts, and included the end of Salutary Neglect, the Sugar Act, and the Stamp Act.
King George II
King George II ruled Great Britain and Ireland from 1727 to 1760. His reign saw significant military conflicts, including the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years’ War, which affected Britain’s colonial expansion.
King George III
George III succeeded his father on the throne. Under his reign, British colonial policy dramatically shifted, leading to the American Revolution and American Revolutionary War. George III was the last British monarch to rule over the American Colonies.
Marquis de Montcalm
Marquis de Montcalm, Louis-Joseph de Montcalm, was a French military commander best known for his leadership during the French and Indian War. He led French forces in critical battles, including the defense of Quebec, where he was killed in 1759.
William Pitt
William Pitt, “the Elder,” was a British politician who took over command of the British war effort late in 1757. Pitt shifted the focus from assaults on the French West Indies to targeting Quebec and Montreal. He appointed young, energetic military leaders like Jeffery Amherst and James Wolfe to subdue Canada. Pitt’s strategy succeeded. Montreal fell in 1760, and French power in Canada ended, solidifying Great Britain’s dominance in North America.
Marquis de Vaudreuil
Marquis de Vaudreuil, Pierre de Rigaud, was the last French governor of New France. He played a crucial role in defending French territories until the British conquest of Quebec and Montreal.
James Wolfe
James Wolfe was a prominent British officer during the French and Indian War. He is most famous for leading British forces to victory at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham (1759). Although Wolfe was killed during the battle, British troops captured Quebec City, essentially ensuring British victory in the war.
American and National Identity — People (Native American Indians)
King Hendrick
King Hendrick was a Mohawk Indian chief. His Christian name was Hendrick Peters, and he was also known as Theyanoguin. King Hendrick participated in the Albany Congress. He was killed during the Bloody Morning Scout portion of the Battle of Lake George on September 8, 1755.
Kyashuta
Kyashuta was a Seneca chief who helped organize Pontiac’s Rebellion. He worked with tribes in the East, toward western New York. Some older accounts of the Rebellion refer to it as the “Kyashuta and Pontiac War.”
Neolin, the Delaware Prophet
Neolin was a Delaware Indian who said he had a dream and was visited by a being called the Master of Life. The Master of Life told him that land in the Ohio Country, where the Delaware and others lived, was meant for the Indians and no others. Neolin traveled through the region and preached in the villages.
Pontiac
Pontiac was a chief of the Ottawa Indians who remains famous for his leadership role in Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763–1766). Pontiac subscribed to the religious beliefs of Neolin, a prophet among the Delaware Indians who encouraged his fellow Indians to forsake all English goods and customs. Pontiac signed a peace treaty with the British at Fort Ontario on July 25, 1766, and then wandered through the Illinois Country. In 1769, he was murdered by another Indian at Cahokia.
American and National Identity — French and Indian Wars
King William’s War (1688–1699)
King William’s War was the First Intercolonial War between England and France in North America, and it took place while the War of the Grand Alliance was being fought in Europe. While England and France were vying for control in Europe, the British Colonies, New France, and the Indian Tribes were trying to gain control of the fur trade in North America — and so were the Native Tribes. The fighting in New England was often sporadic but brutal in nature. The English and the French both used their Indian allies to conduct raids on settlements. At one point, Massachusetts and New York both sent military expeditions into French territory, including one that invaded Canada for the purpose of taking Quebec. The War of the Grand Alliance ended in 1697, but hostilities between the English and Indians continued until 1701.
Queen Anne’s War (1702–1713)
Queen Anne’s War was the Second Intercolonial War between England and France in North America and took place while the War of Spanish Succession was being fought in Europe. English and French colonial forces, along with their Native Allies, continued to conduct raids on settlements on the northern frontier of the American colonies. In 1704, the French and their Indian allies carried out a brutal attack on Deerfield, Massachusetts. The fighting spread to the south, where English forces from Carolina attacked Spanish troops in northwest Florida. While the war continued, England and Scotland agreed to the Act of Union, which created the United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. The war came to an end in 1713 when the Treaty of Utrecht was signed. In the agreement, the British gained Hudson’s Bay, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia (Acadia). France kept control of the Cape Breton Islands and the islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. However, the French also agreed to recognize the British relationship with the Iroquois.
King George’s War (1744–1748)
King George’s War was the Third Intercolonial War between England and France in North America and took place while the War of the Austrian Succession was being fought in Europe. During the war, British forces under the command of Massachusetts Governor William Shirley were able to capture Fort Louisbourg — a French stronghold — at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. The fighting ended on October 18, 1748, when the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed by Britain, France, and the Dutch Republic. In the agreement, all territories were restored, including Fort Louisbourg, which was returned to New France.
French and Indian War (1754–1763)
The most significant of the intercolonial wars between the American Colonies and New France was the French and Indian War. It was the Fourth Intercolonial War and overlapped with the portion of the Seven Years’ War in Europe. The fighting in North America actually started two years before it did in Europe, when George Washington led a surprise attack on a French expedition in Pennsylvania at the Battle of Jumonville Glen. In 1759, the British defeated the French outside of Quebec at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham and gained control of French territory in Canada, essentially ending the conflict in North America.
American and National Identity — French and Indian War, Major Events
French Forts in the Ohio Country
After Christopher Gist surveyed the Ohio Country, the French responded by building forts along the frontier, including Fort Le Boeuf, near present-day Waterford, Pennsylvania, and Fort Machault, near present-day Franklin, Pennsylvania. Lieutenant Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia responded by sending a letter to the French garrison at Fort Le Boeuf, which was commanded by Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre. The letter warned the French and told them to leave British territory.
Washington’s First Expedition (1753–1754)
Dinwiddie sent George Washington, Christopher Gist, and a small expedition to deliver the letter to Fort Le Boeuf. Saint-Pierre refused to leave but hosted Washington and his small party for three days. Washington took detailed notes about the fort. When Washington left, Saint-Pierre gave him a letter for Dinwiddie. Saint-Pierre’s letter told him that his demands needed to be sent to the Major General of New France, who was in the capital, Quebec City. After Washington returned to Virginia, he published The Journal of Major George Washington. The book pushed Washington into the spotlight and remains one of the most important publications of the Colonial Era.
The French Capture Fort Prince George and Build Fort Duquesne (1754)
Dinwiddie sent another group of Virginians to the Forks of the Ohio River with instructions to build Fort Prince George at the site of present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. On April 2, 1754, Washington was part of a regiment under the command of Colonel Joshua Fry that was sent to reinforce Fort Prince George. Fry’s orders were to build a road to the fort and help defend it. On April 18, while Fry’s regiment was en route, a French force of 500 troops arrived at the Forks of the Ohio. They forced the Virginians to surrender, knocked down what they had built, and eventually built their own fort, which they called Fort Duquesne.
Battle of Jumonville Glen (1754)
Virginia forces, led by George Washington, along with Indian allies led by a warrior known as the Half-King, won the first engagement of the French and Indian War, which is known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen. After the fighting, a French diplomat, Ensign Joseph Coulon de Villiers, Sieur de Jumonville, was murdered by Half-King.
Battle of Fort Necessity (1754)
Following the Battle of Jumonville Glen, the French retaliated against Washington at a makeshift fort called Fort Necessity. The fort was located at Great Meadows, about 60 miles from Pittsburgh. Washington knew he could not win, so he capitulated and proceeded to negotiate with the French. They forced him to sign Articles of Capitulation that were incorrectly translated to him. By signing, Washington unknowingly admitted to assassinating Ensign Jumonville. The incident caused outrage in France and was a cause of the Seven Years’ War and the French and Indian War.
Carlyle House Congress (1755)
General Edward Braddock, a seasoned officer, was placed in command of British forces in North America. Braddock sailed to Virginia and met with colonial Governors in Alexandria, Virginia, at the home of John Carlyle, a merchant and prominent member of the Ohio Company. At this meeting, Braddock laid out the plan to attack French strongholds in North America, including Fort Duquesne at the Forks of the Ohio.
Braddock’s Expedition
Braddock’s Expedition to capture Fort Duquesne included British regulars, colonial militia, and Indian warriors. The Expedition cut the Braddock Road through the wilderness, which followed the same path George Washington took to the Ohio Country in 1753–1754. The Expedition arrived at the Monongahela River on July 9, 1755.
Battle of the Monongahela (1755)
On July 9, 1755, Braddock’s Expedition crossed the Monongahela River and was about eight miles from Fort Duquesne when they were attacked by French troops and their Indian allies. Instead of ordering a retreat, Braddock ordered his men to form traditional columns, which only exposed them to more fire from the enemy. Braddock was mortally wounded during the attack and was carried off the battlefield. He died four days later at Great Meadows.
Battle of Lake George (1755)
The Battle of Lake George was fought on September 8, 1755, during the French and Indian War. The British forces, which were made up of American militia and Mohawk warriors, won the battle. With the victory, Britain gained control of the Hudson River Valley. The French responded to the defeat by fortifying Ticonderoga, where they built Fort Carillon.
First Battle of the Snowshoes (1757)
On January 21, 1757, Robert Rogers and his men, including John Stark, were on a scouting mission when they were ambushed by a French contingent that included Indian warriors. However, Rogers and his men were able to move through the snow more easily because of their snowshoes and held off their attackers. Rogers was injured twice in the skirmish, which is known as the First Battle on Snowshoes.
Fort William Henry Massacre (1757)
Fort William Henry was a British fort built at the south end of Lake George to block French access to the Hudson River. In August 1757, French forces led by Marquis de Montcalm laid siege to the fort, which was under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Monro. The British surrendered after three days. However, the Indians with Montcalm attacked the British, killing between 60 and 180 people.
Second Battle of the Snowshoes (1758)
The Second Battle on Snowshoes took place on March 13, 1758. Robert Rogers and his men were out on a scouting expedition, wearing their snowshoes. The French were alerted to their presence after a man from Israel Putnam’s company of Connecticut Rangers was captured. Rogers knew the French were coming, so he set up an ambush. When the first group of French came into sight, Rogers attacked. The French scattered, and Rogers and his men chased after them. However, the second French force had set up their own ambush, and when the British were in view, they launched their attack. The fighting was intense, and Rogers and his men were overwhelmed. Legend has it that Rogers escaped by sliding down the face of a 400-foot cliff to the frozen surface of Lake George, which is known as “Rogers’ Slide.” After the battle, the French found Rogers’ coat, which had the paperwork for his military commission in it, and they believed he had died. However, when Rogers escaped, he threw off some of his equipment and other belongings, including the coat.
Battle on the Plains of Abraham (1759)
On the night of September 12–13, 1759, James Wolfe and his army scaled the steep cliffs at Anse au Foulon below Quebec City and overpowered the few French troops stationed there. By dawn, Wolfe had strategically positioned 4,500 men and two artillery pieces on the heights of the Plains of Abraham. The British won the ensuing battle and took control of the city, but Wolfe was wounded and died on the battlefield.
Capitulation of Montreal (1760)
Following Quebec’s fall, French forces retreated to Montreal. On September 8, Pierre-Rigaud de Vaudreuil, the Governor of New France, surrendered the city. This was the last significant military action of the French and Indian War.
American and National Identity — Other Conflicts
War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739–1748)
The War of Jenkins’ Ear was partially the result of an incident that took place on April 9, 1731, where Spanish coast guard officers near Havana, Cuba, accused Captain Robert Jenkins of smuggling. They punished him by cutting off his ear. War broke out between England and Spain in 1739, after Jenkins appeared in front of a committee of the House of Commons and showed them his ear, which led to public outrage. British merchants and the public demanded retribution. Spain was also upset with Britain for conducting excessive trade with its colonies in the Spanish West Indies. In 1740, General James Oglethorpe led forces from the Province of Georgia in an attack on Spanish Florida. The Spanish responded by invading Georgia in 1742 but were forced to withdraw to St. Augustine. Ultimately, the conflict between Britain and Spain was superseded by their involvement in King George’s War, which started in 1744.
Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763–1766)
Pontiac’s Rebellion — or Pontiac’s War — was an uprising of Native American Indian tribes against British forts in the Ohio Country and Great Lakes region after the French and Indian War. The war led to the Proclamation of 1763 and the establishment of a standing army in the American Colonies, two causes of the American Revolution.
Paxton Boys and the Conestoga Massacre (1763–1764)
The Conestoga Massacre took place near Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in December 1763, during Pontiac’s Rebellion, when a group known as the Paxton Boys carried out a series of attacks on the Conestoga Tribe, a group of peaceful Indians living in the area.
Migration and Settlement
Braddock Road
The Braddock Road was the path the Braddock Expedition cut through the wilderness on its way to Fort Duquesne in 1755. It ran from Will’s Creek and Fort Cumberland in Virginia through the wilderness and over the Allegheny Mountains. It was the first road over the mountains.
Politics and Power — America
Albany Congress
The Albany Congress took place in Albany, New York, in June and July 1754. It was a meeting between colonial leaders and Iroquois leaders that restored the Covenant Chain between the Six Nations and the colonies. During the proceedings, Benjamin Franklin presented the Albany Plan of Union, which proposed an intercolonial government for the British Colonies in America.
Stamp Act Congress
The Stamp Act Congress was a meeting of 27 delegates from nine of the 13 Original Colonies that took place in New York City from October 7 to October 25, 1765. They met to discuss a unified colonial response to the provisions of the Stamp Act. The Stamp Act was passed on March 22, 1765, and was set to go into effect on November 1, 1765. The meeting produced a document called the “Declaration of Rights and Grievances” that was sent to the colonial legislatures, the King, and both houses of Parliament. Although the Declaration and letters were rejected by colonial agents and British officials, the Stamp Act Congress marked the first time a “continental congress” was held by the colonies in order to respond to British policies. The Stamp Act Congress was one of the most significant events that took place during the American Revolution.
Politics and Power — Concepts
Non-Importation Agreements
Non-Importation Agreements were contracts signed by American merchants and citizens, promising not to import or buy British goods. They were used to protest British tax policies and contributed to the repeal of the Stamp Act.
Standing Army in North America
Following the French and Indian War, Britain needed to protect its new territory in North America and enforce the Proclamation of 1763. To do this, Parliament decided to keep a Standing Army of 10,000 British regulars in the colonies. To pay for and support this new army, Parliament passed the Sugar Act, Stamp Act, and Quartering Act. Americans opposed this army, believing it was a threat to their freedom.
Virtual Representation
Virtual Representation was a concept that argued American interests were represented in Parliament because the members represented all British subjects, regardless of whether they had directly voted for them. Americans rejected this concept because they were accustomed to democratic representation in their local and colonial governments.
Politics and Power — Laws and Treaties
Navigation Acts
The Navigation Acts were a series of British laws passed in the 17th and 18th centuries to regulate colonial trade and ensure that most of it benefited the British Empire. These acts required that certain colonial goods could only be transported in British ships, that goods bound for the colonies had to pass through British ports, and that certain key exports (like tobacco and sugar) could only be sold to Britain. These measures were intended to maintain British economic dominance over the American colonies, but also generated tension and resentment, ultimately contributing to colonial discontent that led to the American Revolution.
Molasses Act (1733)
The Molasses Act of 1733 was a piece of British legislation that imposed high import duties on molasses, rum, and sugar imported into the American colonies from non-British Caribbean sources, primarily the French West Indies. The act aimed to protect the sugar plantations in the British West Indies and generate revenue for the British Crown. However, it was widely evaded through smuggling and was deeply unpopular among colonial merchants, contributing to the rise of illicit trade and colonial opposition to British economic policies. However, the unwritten policy of Salutary Neglect contributed to lax enforcement of the law’s provisions. Also, see Molasses Act Text.
Writs of Assistance
Writs of Assistance were broad search warrants that allowed British customs officials to search property without a court order and force law enforcement officials to help them. In 1761, James Otis challenged the Writs in court, leading James Adams to say, “American Independence was then and there born.”
Treaty of Paris (1763)
The Treaty of Paris ended the French and Indian War and the Seven Years’ War. France ceded nearly all its territory in North America to Britain and Spain, but it retained several small but valuable sugar islands in the West Indies and fishing stations in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. To compensate Spain for its losses during the war, the French ceded their territory in the Trans-Mississippi Louisiana Region, including New Orleans, to Spain. Great Britain emerged as the dominant power in North America and solidified its position as the leading naval power in the world.
Proclamation of 1763
The Proclamation of 1763 reserved the lands west of the crest of the Appalachian Mountains for the native inhabitants and prohibited colonists from settling in the area.
Currency Act (1764)
Following the French and Indian War, the American economy struggled and suffered from a recession. When American merchants fell behind on paying their bills, British merchants started to demand they pay their debts in hard money — gold and silver coins, also known as specie — rather than colonial paper currency. Hard Money was a far more stable currency than paper money, which meant British merchants could use it for other transactions. To address this issue, Parliament passed the Currency Act, which prohibited the colonies from issuing paper currency. This made it even more challenging for colonists to settle their debts and pay taxes because Hard Money was scarce. Under the Mercantile System, most Hard Money was held by British merchants.
Sugar Act (1764)
The Sugar Act, or the American Revenue Act, was passed by Parliament on April 5, 1764. The goal of the act was to raise revenue for Britain to pay part of the cost of a standing army in North America. It is most famous for starting the controversy over Taxation Without Representation.
Stamp Act (1765)
The Stamp Act was passed by Parliament in 1765 to raise money from the 13 Original Colonies. It required printers and publishers to buy stamps and place them on many legal documents and printed materials in the American colonies, increasing the cry of “No Taxation Without Representation.”
Declaratory Act (1765)
The Declaratory Act was passed by Parliament on March 18, 1766, and asserted Parliament’s authority to pass laws governing the colonies, including taxation.
Quartering Act (1765)
The Quartering Act of 1765 required the colonies to provide provisions and lodging to British soldiers. In New York, it led to political opposition and violent protests that culminated in the Battle of Golden Hill in 1770, just a few weeks before the Boston Massacre.
America in the World
Nine Years’ War (1688–1697)
The Nine Years’ War was a European conflict between France and the Grand Alliance, including Great Britain. Fighting spread to colonial possessions in the Americas, India, and West Africa, including King William’s War in North America.
War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714)
The War of the Spanish Succession was a European conflict fought for control of the Spanish Empire between supporters of the Bourbon and Habsburg Dynasties following the death of Charles II of Spain. The official heir was Philip of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV of France. Philip was supported by France and most of Spain. His main rival for the throne, Archduke Charles of Austria, was supported by the Grand Alliance, including Austria, the Dutch Republic, and Great Britain. Fighting spread to North America, where it was known as Queen Anne’s War.
War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748)
The War of the Austrian Succession was a European conflict fought over succession to the Austrian Habsburg crown. It involved Great Britain, France, and Spain and extended to North America in the form of the War of Jenkins’ Ear and King George’s War.
Seven Years’ War (1756–1763)
Unlike the previous wars, the Seven Years’ War started in North America with the French and Indian War and spread to Europe. It is viewed as the first true world war.
Geography and the Environment
Appalachian Mountains
The Appalachian Mountains are a mountain range stretching from Canada to Alabama. During the Colonial Era, they served as a natural barrier to Westward Expansion. The Proclamation of 1763 prohibited colonial settlement west of the mountain to avoid conflicts with Indians.
Great Meadows
Great Meadows was an area about 60 miles southeast of the Forks of the Ohio, and the location of Fort Necessity.
Illinois Country
The Illinois Country was a region in the mid-Mississippi River Valley, including parts of present-day Illinois, Missouri, and Indiana. It was a French territory until the British took control after the French and Indian War.
Ohio Country
The Ohio Country was a contested region between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, including parts of present-day Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. During the French and Indian War, it was central to conflicts between the British, French, and Indians for control of North America.
Pays d’en Haut (Great Lakes Region)
Pontiac’s Rebellion took place in the area known as the “Pays d’en Haut,” which is French for “upper country” or “up country.” It was a territory in New France that covered the region west of Montreal, including the Great Lakes and the upper portions of the Illinois Country and the Ohio Country. The eastern portion of the Pays d’en Haut met the Appalachian Mountains, which was considered the western boundary for many of the British colonies on the East Coast.
New England
New England refers to the northeastern region of North America that was colonized by English settlers during the 17th century. It encompassed present-day states such as Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Maine. The interactions between English colonists and Native American Indian communities, which included cooperation and conflict, played a key role in shaping the time period.
New France
New France was made up of French colonial possessions in North America during the 16th to 18th centuries, encompassing areas such as present-day Canada, the Great Lakes Region, and the Ohio Valley Region. The interactions between French Fur Traders, Jesuit Missionaries, and Native American Tribes created an exchange of ideas, goods, and religious beliefs.
New Spain
New Spain was the vast Spanish colonial territory in the Americas that included present-day Mexico, Central America, and parts of the southwestern United States. The cultural interactions between Spanish settlers, Native Americans, and African Slaves in this New Spain significantly impacted language, religion, and societal structures, resulting in a blend of customs and traditions.
Unit 3 Topics and Key Concepts
Key Concepts
3.1 — British attempts to assert tighter control over its North American colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self-government led to a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War.
3.2 — The American Revolution’s democratic and republican ideas inspired new experiments with different forms of government.
3.3 — Migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries, and trade intensified conflicts among peoples and nations.
Topics
- 3.1 — Contextualizing Period 3
- 3.2 — The Seven Years’ War (The French and Indian War)
- 3.3 — Taxation Without Representation
- 3.4 — Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution
- 3.5 — The American Revolution
- 3.6 — The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals
- 3.7 — The Articles of Confederation
- 3.8 — The Constitutional Convention and Debates over Ratification
- 3.9 — The Constitution
- 3.10 — Shaping a New Republic
- 3.11 — Developing an American Identity
- 3.12 — Movement in the Early Republic
- 3.13 — Continuity and Change in Period 3
