Overview
The British Colonies in America were established and governed by colonial charters issued by the Crown. These charters usually provided a government structure that included a Governor, Lieutenant Governor, and a bicameral legislature. The lower house of the legislature was the General Assembly, which was elected by the people. The upper house was the Governor’s Council, which was typically elected by the General Assembly.
Colonial legislatures were free to enact laws as long as they did not violate existing British laws. They were also given the authority to levy taxes.
Representatives to the legislatures were often directed by their constituents — the people who voted for them — through town and county meetings. The steps in the process were as follows:
- A town elected representatives to the General Assembly.
- When the General Assembly met to discuss an issue, such as the Stamp Act, the town would call for a meeting of eligible voters.
- The voters would debate and then agree to resolutions and instructions sent to their representatives in the General Assembly.
- The representative was expected to vote in the best interests of the people they represented, based on the instructions.
Although Americans were loyal to the Crown and Parliament, the absence of a Peerage System in the colonies allowed a unique political ideology to develop. America’s most influential leaders were educated at schools like Harvard but also spent time extending their education in England, at places like Cambridge and Middle Temple.
As the colonies matured, books, newspapers, and education became more widespread, and Americans in the larger cities adopted a consumer culture. These things allowed concepts from the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment to spread from Europe to America.
By the start of the French and Indian War, many Americans were native-born, and their ties to England were nothing more than a place on a map. Their lives were shaped by their surroundings, primarily their home, their town, and their colony. This was the case no matter where an American was born, from the Waxhaws Region in the Carolina Backcountry to Boston, one of the largest port cities on the East Coast.
With the First Great Awakening, America experienced its first “nationwide” cultural event. It emphasized spiritual devotion, individualism, and freedom, which contributed to the ideals of the American Revolution. It helped transform colonial society by establishing a common “American” identity.
It rejected traditional Calvinist ideas that God only provided salvation to an “elected” group, such as the Puritans, and challenged the idea that the Pope or the King of England stood between the individual and God. It renewed interest in Christianity, resulting in increased church attendance and conversions.
Educated Americans, like Benjamin Franklin, were influenced by new ways of looking at the world. In the absence of noble ranks and titles, a new school of thought about analyzing political and economic issues developed. This included studying the law and legal precedents but also took into account the so-called “Natural Rights” of mankind, which were based on “Principles of Reason.”
In America, people who accepted the monarchy and the “Divine Right of Kings” were eventually called “Loyalists.” Americans who sought democracy through the will of the people — known as Republicanism — became, as far as the American Revolution is concerned — “Patriots.”
British leaders who supported the Loyalists were members of the Tory Party in Parliament, while the Whig Party supported the Patriots.
In 1823, Thomas Jefferson wrote a letter to Marquis de Lafayette in which he summed up the philosophy of the American Revolution. In his essay Classical Republicanism and the American Revolution, historian Gordon Wood says:
“Many…believed that all governments in the world could be reduced to just two — monarchies and republics — and that these were rooted in two basic types of personalities: monarchists who loved peace and order, and republicans who loved liberty and independence.
Late in his life, Jefferson likewise thought that all people by nature could be divided into just two parties. They existed in all countries, he said, whether called tories and whigs, aristocrats and democrats, right and left, ultras and radicals, or serviles and liberals.
Jefferson left no doubt where his own sympathies lay: ‘the sickly, weakly, timid man, fears the people, and is a tory by nature. The healthy, strong and bold, cherishes them, and is formed a whig by nature.’”
Thematic Focus
APUSH Topic 3.4’s thematic focus is “American and National Identity.” From 1607 to 1754, a system of Republicanism, driven by the will of the people, developed in America. It was based on principles that valued Natural Rights, Democracy, and citizenship over the Old World systems of Monarchy, Feudalism, and the Peerage System. Despite regional differences, the over-arching ideas found in America’s Founding Documents have persisted.
Learning Objective
The Learning Objective for this topic is to be able to explain how and why colonial attitudes about government and the individual changed in the years leading up to the American Revolution. The key points are:
Natural Rights of Man — The philosopher John Locke argued that every person is “…born free as we are born rational,” and at a basic level, “…no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions…” This was reiterated by James Otis and other Patriot philosophers throughout the American Revolution. To them, “possessions” included money or other goods that could be traded, like tobacco, and unlawful taxation was essentially theft.
Democracy — In simple terms, Democracy is ‘rule by the people.’ It was the basis of local government and colonial legislatures. However, voting rights were often limited to stakeholders, usually male landowners. The Founding Fathers and Framers of the Constitution believed this helped avoid ‘Mob Rule.’
Direct Representation vs. Virtual Representation — Direct Representation is when voters can elect their representatives to a governing body. In this scenario, the voters have more control over their representatives. Virtual Representation is when the members of a governing body are expected to represent all people, but the people have no direct method of controlling the representatives. British officials often argued that Americans had Virtual Representation in Parliament, and that was enough. Americans preferred Direct Representation.
Republicanism — Republicanism builds on Democracy, helping ensure that a reasonable majority of the ‘will of the people’ is represented in government by leaders who work on behalf of the common good. Public officials are expected to protect society from corruption, avoid despotism, and not use their position for personal gain.
Historical Developments
The Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment, and First Great Awakening helped shape the ideology of the American Revolution. America’s political leaders focused on the potential of the individual instead of the hereditary privilege of nobles, which allowed them to craft a Republican form of government based on Democratic principles.
On an individual basis, Americans were largely free and independent before the French and Indian War, especially those living on the frontier. However, many were socially bound to their churches and lived by the rules of the Church of England or the Puritan Congregational Church. Following the Great Awakening, the idea that each person controlled his or her destiny — not church leaders or monarchs — replaced the last remnants of Old World thinking.
The philosophical foundations of the American Revolution developed over time through the writings of important Patriot leaders like James Otis, Stephen Hopkins, Samuel Adams, Thomas Paine, and Joseph Warren.
Review Video
This video from Heimler’s History provides an excellent overview of APUSH 3.4. You can also check out our APUSH Guide, which provides a look at all Units and Topics in the APUSH Curriculum.
Vocabulary and Notes
The following terms and definitions relate to the Key Concepts for Unit 3 and are broken into sections by APUSH Themes. Within the explanations of APUSH 3.4, Terms are links to content on American History Central that should provide a more comprehensive understanding of each topic. Terms and definitions are organized according to the APUSH Themes:
- American and National Identity
- Work, Exchange, and Technology
- Migration and Settlement
- Politics and Power
- America in the World
- Geography and the Environment
- Culture and Society
American and National Identity — People
Abigail Adams
Abigail Adams was the wife of John Adams, the second President of the United States, and the mother of the sixth President, John Quincy Adams. Her letters and memoirs of the Revolutionary era are considered to be major historical documents. She strongly supported her husband while he was serving in the Continental Congress and in Europe and famously told him to “Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors..”
John Adams
John Adams was a Founding Father, America’s First Ambassador to the Court of St. James, and the Second President of the United States. He was also the first Vice President, serving two terms under George Washington.
Samuel Adams
Samuel Adams was a Founding Father, a member of the Continental Congress, a Signer of the Declaration of Independence, and a leading proponent of colonial independence from Great Britain. After the Revolution, Adams served four terms as Governor of Massachusetts.
John Dickinson
John Dickinson was a Founding Father, known as the “Penman of the Revolution,” for his Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania. Although he refused to sign the Declaration of Independence, his name was signed to the United States Constitution.
Daniel Dulaney
Daniel Dulany was a prominent Maryland lawyer known for his opposition to the Stamp Act. In his influential pamphlet, Considerations on the Propriety of Imposing Taxes in the British Colonies, Dulany argued that Parliament had no right to tax the colonies without their consent, as they lacked representation.
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson was a Founding Father and the third President of the United States. He is the author of the Declaration of Independence and founded the University of Virginia. He also served as Governor of Virginia, Virginia Congressman, Minister to France, Secretary of State under George Washington, and Vice President under John Adams.
Alexander McDougall
Alexander McDougall was a prominent leader of the New York Sons of Liberty and served as a General in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. McDougall is most famous for his role as a leader of the Patriot Cause in New York City and is believed to be the author of the broadside To the Betrayed Inhabitants of New York.
James Otis
James Otis was a Founding Father and a successful lawyer from Boston, Massachusetts, who significantly influenced the ideology of the American Revolution. He is most famous for his opposition to Writs of Assistance, the Sugar Act, and the Townshend Acts.
Thomas Paine
Thomas Paine was a Founding Father, a philosopher of the American Revolution, and a true revolutionary. His essays and pamphlets, especially Common Sense, noted for their plain language, resonated with the common people of America and roused them to rally behind the movement for independence. Following the American Revolutionary War, Paine immigrated to Europe, where the British government declared him an outlaw for his anti-monarchist views and where he actively participated in the French Revolution.
Benjamin Rush
Benjamin Rush was a Founding Father, Signer of the Declaration of Independence, Member of the Continental Army, and advocate for the ratification of the United States Constitution. Rush was also a prominent physician, educator, and proponent of women’s rights and the abolition of slavery.
Joseph Warren
Dr. Joseph Warren was one of the prominent leaders of the Patriots in Boston. Closely aligned with Samuel Adams and the Sons of Liberty, Warren was involved in the Committee of Correspondence and Massachusetts Provincial Congress. He was the author of prominent documents, including the Suffolk Resolves.
Mercy Otis Warren
Mercy Otis Warren was the sister of James Otis and the wife of James Warren. She was also close friends with Abigail Adams. The Warrens were intense revolutionaries and hosted groups, including the Sons of Liberty and Committees of Correspondence, in their home. However, it was primarily her writing that made her “perhaps the most important of Revolutionary War women.” She wrote The Rise, Progress and Termination of the American Revolution (1805), her eyewitness account of the revolution, and the first published history of the Revolution.
American and National Identity — Groups
Committees of Correspondence
The Sons of Liberty and Colonial Legislatures used Committees of Correspondence to create an intercolonial communication network, share critical information, and coordinate opposition to British policies.
Committee of Five
On June 11, 1776, Congress created a Committee of Five to draft a statement presenting to the world the colonies’ case for independence. The members of the Committee of Five included Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut.
Committees of Safety
Committees of Safety were established by local and colonial legislatures to help gather goods, provisions, and military supplies for use by American Militia forces.
Daughters of Liberty
The Daughters of Liberty formed during the Stamp Act Crisis. After the Townshend Acts were passed, the Boston members supported the agreement by spinning wool and kitting wool into cloth. These gatherings were known as “Spinning Bees.” The clothing they made was called “Homespun.” They also refused to drink imported English tea and devised different concoctions of herbs to drink instead.
Loyalists
Loyalists were Americans who remained loyal to the British Crown during the American Revolution and American Revolutionary War. Loyalists rejected the Declaration of Independence, and many relocated to Canada or Europe during and after the American Revolution.
Patriots
Patriots were Americans who supported the ideals of Democracy and Republicanism that embodied the American Revolution. They came from all walks of life, including wealthy landowners, artisans, free people of color, and former slaves.
Sons of Liberty
The Sons of Liberty was a radical organization in Colonial America created to carry out public demonstrations against British policies that forced Americans to pay taxes without representation in Parliament. Many men associated with the group are considered Founding Fathers of the United States.
Work, Exchange, and Technology
Artisans
Artisans in Colonial America were skilled craftspeople who produced goods such as furniture, clothing, metalwork, and tools by hand. They played an important role in the economy of the colonies, working in trades like blacksmithing, carpentry, shoemaking, and weaving. They were often organized into guilds or trade associations to regulate their work and maintain standards. They became involved in the Patriot Cause and joined groups like the Sons of Liberty. One of the most prominent artisans was Paul Revere, a silversmith.
Politics and Power — Government Systems
House of Burgesses
The House of Burgesses was established in 1619 in Virginia. It was the first legislative assembly in the English Colonies in North America and was a significant step towards representative self-governance. Elected by male property owners, the “Burgesses” were responsible for passing laws, regulating local affairs, and interacting with the Governor and the Council. However, the assembly was dominated by wealthy planters who often crafted laws for their own benefit. This was one of the causes of Bacon’s Rebellion.
New England Town Meetings
New England Town Meetings were democratic gatherings that allowed local residents to participate in the decision-making process of their communities. These meetings, often held in the town’s meetinghouse, enabled residents to discuss and vote on various matters, such as local ordinances, budgets, and elections. New England Town Meetings promoted direct participation in governance and fostered a sense of civic responsibility among the colonists. These meetings created a tradition of participatory democracy in communities that continues today.
Politics and Power — American Political Resistance
Albany Congress (1754)
The Albany Congress took place in Albany, New York, in June and July 1754. It was a meeting between colonial leaders and Iroquois Confederacy leaders that restored the Covenant Chain between the Six Nations and the colonies. During the proceedings, Benjamin Franklin presented the Albany Plan of Union, which proposed an intercolonial government for the British Colonies in America.
Stamp Act Congress (1765)
The Stamp Act Congress was a meeting of 27 delegates from nine of the 13 Original Colonies that took place in New York City from October 7 to October 25, 1765. They met to discuss a unified colonial response to the provisions of the Stamp Act. The Stamp Act was passed on March 22, 1765, and was set to go into effect on November 1, 1765. The meeting produced a document called the “Declaration of Rights and Grievances” that was sent to the colonial legislatures, the King, and both houses of Parliament. Although the Declaration and letters were rejected by colonial agents and British officials, the Stamp Act Congress marked the first time a “continental congress” was held by the colonies in order to respond to British policies. The Stamp Act Congress was one of the most significant events that took place during the American Revolution.
Boston Non-Importation Agreement (1768)
The Boston Non-Importation Agreement of 1768 was signed by Boston merchants and traders on August 1, 1768. The agreement established a trade boycott against British goods and products in protest of the Townshend Acts.
Massachusetts Circular Letter (1768)
The Massachusetts Circular Letter was written primarily by Samuel Adams in opposition to the Townshend Acts and “Taxation Without Representation.” The letter helped coordinate colonial opposition to the Townshend Acts. Although it increased tension with Great Britain, it also contributed to the growing sense of unity between the American Colonies, laying the foundation for the establishment of Committees of Correspondence and the First Continental Congress.
Massachusetts Convention of Towns (1768)
Upon learning that British troops were being sent to occupy Boston, the Boston Town Meeting for a convention of towns to discuss the issue. The meeting was held in Boston on September 22. Boston’s representatives were James Otis, Samuel Adams, John Hanock, and Thomas Cushing. 30 towns sent delegates to the Massachusetts Convention of Towns. The convention sent a petition to Governor Francis Bernard, who suggested if the convention did not dissolve, the participants could be charged with crimes. The convention replied, asking him to clarify which laws they were breaking. Bernard refused to reply. British troops arrived in Boston Harbor on September 28, 1768, and occupied the city on October 1.
Gaspee Affair (1772)
The Gaspee Affair was a dispute between British officials and colonial officials over how to handle the Gaspee Incident. The incident took place from June 9–10, 1772, and included Rhode Islanders attacking the British schooner HMS Gaspee, shooting a British naval officer, and destroying the ship by setting it on fire. In the aftermath, British officials investigating the incident wanted to arrest the men responsible and take them to Britain to stand trial. Americans were outraged and believed the right to a fair trial would be violated. Virginia responded by calling for each of the colonies to establish permanent Committees of Correspondence.
Watauga Association (1772)
The Watauga Association was the government organized by the settlers living in the Watauga Region. Watauga was outside of British-controlled territory, and the settlers negotiated an agreement with the Cherokee to lease “all the country on the waters of the Watauga.” In 1772, the settlers formed their government, which may have included John Sevier. This was the first American government in Tennessee.
Solemn League and Covenant (1774)
The Solemn League and Covenant was an agreement designed by Patriot leaders in Boston in response to the Boston Port Act. It was intended to stop all trade between the towns in Massachusetts and merchants in Great Britain and was a precursor to the Continental Association.
Suffolk Resolves (1774)
The Suffolk Resolves were written by Joseph Warren in protest of the Intolerable Acts and military preparations taken by Governor Thomas Gage after the Powder Alarm. In its first official act, the First Continental Congress endorsed the Resolves and ordered colonial newspapers to print them.
First Continental Congress (1774)
The First Continental Congress met in Carpenter’s Hall in Philadelphia from September 5, 1774, until October 26, 1774. The meeting was called in response to acts of the British Parliament, collectively known in the Colonies as the Intolerable Acts.
Continental Association (1774)
The Continental Association was an organization created by the First Continental Congress to enforce the Articles of Association — a trade boycott against British merchants — unless Britain repealed the Coercive Acts. Committees of Inspection enforced the rules of the Association. Although Georgia did not send delegates to Congress, it did adopt the Articles of Association.
Politics and Power — Concepts
Age of Revolutions
The Age of Revolutions refers to a time period that started in the mid-1700s and lasted through the mid-1800s. Revolutionary movements swept across the Americas and Europe, starting with the American Revolution (1775–1783). America’s success led to the French Revolution (1789–1799) and led to significant uprisings such as the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804), Latin American wars of independence, and the 1848 Revolutions in Europe. These revolutions were driven by Enlightenment ideas of liberty, equality, and Popular Sovereignty. They challenged monarchies and Old World systems, replacing them with Democratic ideals and Republican governments.
Divine Right of Kings
The Divine Right of Kings was a political and religious doctrine asserting that monarchs derived their authority to rule directly from God rather than from the consent of the people. This belief held that the king was God’s appointed representative on Earth and, therefore, not subject to human laws or accountability to the people. The doctrine was used to justify absolute monarchy, particularly in Europe, and was challenged during the Age of Revolutions.
Feudalism
Feudalism was a social and economic system that dominated Medieval Europe. It was based on the exchange of land for military service and the hierarchical relationships between lords and vassals. In the Feudal System, the land was owned by nobles or monarchs and granted to vassals in exchange for their loyalty and military support. Feudalism provided social order and structure but also reinforced inequality and limited social mobility. Under the Feudal System, the lower classes had little to no opportunity to own land of their own. The opportunity to own land in the New World played an important role in European immigration.
Non-Importation Agreements
Non-Importation Agreements were contracts signed by American merchants and citizens, promising not to import or buy British goods. They were used to protest British tax policies and contributed to the repeal of the Stamp Act.
Peerage System
The Peerage System is a hierarchical structure of noble titles in Britain, representing different ranks of the aristocracy. It includes five main titles: Duke, Marquess, Earl, Viscount, and Baron, listed in descending order of prestige. The peerage is typically hereditary, though some titles can be granted for life. Members of the peerage were historically entitled to sit in the House of Lords. The system was central to British social, political, and legal structures, maintaining the distinction between the aristocracy and commoners. The Peerage System started during the Medieval Feudal System and remains a part of British ceremonial and legal traditions.
Popular Sovereignty
Popular Sovereignty is a political principle that asserts that a government’s authority is created and sustained by the consent of its people through its elected representatives.
Republicanism
Republicanism is a political ideology centered on the idea that a government’s authority comes from the people instead of a monarchy or aristocracy. In a Republican nation, the people have the right to elect representatives to govern on their behalf. It also emphasizes civic virtue, individual rights, and the importance of limiting government power to prevent tyranny. In the context of American History, Republicanism influenced the founding principles of the United States, shaping the Declaration of Independence, the United States Constitution, and the Bill of Rights.
Social Contract
The Social Contract is a political theory that suggests individuals consent, either explicitly or implicitly, to form a society and establish a government to protect their rights and maintain order. In exchange, they agree to abide by the laws and rules established by the government. The concept is associated with philosophers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Locke emphasized that governments are formed by the consent of the governed to protect natural rights, and if a government fails to do so, citizens have the right to alter or overthrow it. This idea influenced Enlightenment thinking and the foundations of modern democratic governments, including the United States.
Virtual Representation
Virtual Representation was a concept that argued American interests were represented in Parliament because the members represented all British subjects, regardless of whether they had directly voted for them. Americans rejected this concept because they were accustomed to democratic representation in their local and colonial governments.
Politics and Power — Documents
City on a Hill (1630)
“City on a Hill” refers to a famous sermon delivered by John Winthrop in 1630 to the Puritans aboard the ship Arbella as they prepared to establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In the sermon, officially titled A Model of Christian Charity, Winthrop envisioned the new colony as a “city upon a hill,” serving as a moral example for the world. He emphasized unity, charity, and a shared sense of purpose under God. The sermon in Colonial America is recognized as a symbol of American exceptionalism and the belief that the United States has a special mission to lead by example in promoting morality, Democracy, and Republicanism.
Errand in the Wilderness (1670)
Errand in the Wilderness is a sermon delivered by Puritan minister Samuel Danforth during elections for the Massachusetts General Assembly. Danforth reiterated the Puritans’ belief that they had a divine mission, or “errand,” but warned they were failing in this mission due to moral and spiritual decline. By this time, Massachusetts was 40 years old, and British oversight was limited. Danforth challenged the people to take control of their destiny.
Two Treatises on Government (1689)
John Locke published Two Treatises on Government in 1689. In the first treatise, Locke refuted the Divine Right of Kings, while the second treatise presented his ideas on Natural Rights and the Social Contract. Locke argued that all individuals have the right to life, liberty, and property and that governments are formed by the consent of the governed to protect these rights. If a government fails in this duty, Locke believed that the people have the right to overthrow it.
Spirit of the Laws (1748)
The Spirit of the Laws is a political treatise written by French philosopher Montesquieu and published in 1748. It explores different forms of government and advocates for the separation of powers into three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. Montesquieu argued that dividing governmental powers would prevent any single entity from gaining too much control, which would protect liberty and balance. His ideas were influential during the Enlightenment and played a key role in shaping the structure of modern systems, including the U.S. Constitution.
The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1750)
Adam Smith published The Theory of Moral Sentiments in 1759. Smith explores human morality, ethics, and the social nature of human beings. He argues moral judgments arise from sympathy — our ability to understand and share the feelings of others. Smith emphasizes the role of conscience, or the “impartial spectator,” in guiding moral behavior. It laid the foundation for the economic ideas he presented in The Wealth of Nations.
Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved (1764)
James Otis of Massachusetts published Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved, objecting to the Sugar Act and Parliament’s encroachment on the rights of the colonies and the personal liberties of the colonists.
Rights of the Colonies Examined (1765)
Stephen Hopkins was the Governor of Rhode Island. After he returned from a trip to London in 1764, Hopkins wrote Rights of the Colonies Examined. It was published in 1765. Hopkins echoed many of the same sentiments as James Otis. Hopkins said, “British subjects are to be governed only agreeable to laws by which themselves have in some way consented.”
Virginia Stamp Act Resolves (1765)
On March 22, 1765, the Stamp Act received Royal Assent from King George III. News of the bill’s passage reached the colonies in April. At the next session of the House of Burgesses, a new member, Patrick Henry, delivered a fiery speech on May 29, 1765. In it, he presented a series of resolutions against the Stamp Act. The next day, the House of Burgesses adopted some of Henry’s resolutions and issued the Virginia Stamp Act Resolves. At least ten colonies followed in Virginia’s footsteps and issued Stamp Act Resolutions.
Declarations of the Stamp Act Congress (1765)
On October 19, 1765, the Stamp Act Congress passed the “Declaration of Rights and Grievances,” which claimed that American colonists were guaranteed the same rights as other British citizens, protested taxation without representation, and argued Parliament did not have the authority to levy taxes on the colonies.
Leedstown Resolves (1766)
The Leedstown Resolves — or Leedstown Resolutions — is a document that organized the Westmoreland Association for the purpose of resisting the Stamp Act and ensuring Virginians in Westmoreland County did not comply with the law. The document was written by Richard Henry Lee and signed at Leedstown, Virginia, on February 27, 1766. The Westmoreland Association is considered to be one of the first groups that were formally organized to resist British policies.
Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania (1767–1768)
Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania was a series of essays written by John Dickinson. They were published in colonial newspapers and became one of the most influential critiques of British taxation policies, particularly the Townshend Acts. Dickinson argued that Parliament could regulate colonial trade but had no right to tax the colonies without their consent.
Common Sense (1776)
Published by Thomas Paine, Common Sense urged Americans to declare their independence and replace the monarchy with a Republic. Paine believed Democracy is the only form of government that can guarantee the Natural Rights of Man. Common Sense was an immediate success, selling 120,000 copies in the first three months and three times that over the next three years.
Olive Branch Petition (1776)
The Olive Branch Petition was a letter sent to King George III of England from the Second Continental Congress, attempting to avoid war with Great Britain in the American colonies. Despite the Battles of Lexington and Concord and the Battle of Bunker Hill, the letter was conciliatory in nature, assuring the King that American colonists remained loyal to the Crown and imploring him to peacefully redress their grievances. King George III refused to receive the Olive Branch Petition and instead published a proclamation on August 23, 1775, declaring the American colonies to be in a state of rebellion.
The Wealth of Nations (1776)
Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations in 1776. It is recognized as one of the most important works regarding economics. In it, Smith explores the nature of wealth, markets, and economic growth. He introduces the concept of the “invisible hand,” suggesting individual self-interest unintentionally benefits society as a whole through the efficient allocation of resources. Smith advocates for free markets, minimal government intervention, and division of labor as essential to economic prosperity.
Declaration of Independence (1776)
The Declaration of Independence, adopted on July 4, 1776, is a foundational document in American History in which the 13 Original Colonies proclaimed independence from Great Britain. Drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson, it outlines American grievances against King George III and asserts the right of the people to overthrow a government that fails to protect their Natural Rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Although the Declaration is not law, it does contain many of the guiding principles upon which social, economic, and political systems in the United States were built. Despite Jefferson’s attempt to criticize King George III for perpetuating slavery in the Colonies, Southern delegates had the language removed. 50 members of Congress signed the Declaration on August 2, 1776.
America in the World — Prominent Europeans
Robert Filmer
Robert Filmer was an English philosopher best known for his work Patriarcha (1680),, in which he defended the Divine Right of Kings. Filmer argued that monarchs were granted authority from God, comparing the King’s power over his subjects to a father’s authority over his children. He rejected the notion of Popular Sovereignty or the idea that political power derives from the consent of the governed. Filmer’s ideas were widely criticized, most notably by John Locke, in his rebuttal, Two Treatises of Government.
Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes was a philosopher who promoted the idea that a social contract existed between the government and the people. Under this contract, the people sacrificed freedom and liberty to the government in return for safety. Hobbes supported concepts such as the Divine Right of Kings. His most influential work, Leviathan, was published in 1651.
John Locke
John Locke was an English philosopher who believed people learned from experience. He articulated this belief in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. In Two Treatises of Government, Locke rejected the Divine Right of Kings and proposed that government should exist for the benefit of the people. He also argued that a government that failed to represent the people should be overthrown. Locke was also involved in the development of the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina, which was rejected by the colonial assembly.
Montesquieu
Montesquieu, born Charles-Louis de Secondat, was a French philosopher and political theorist best known for his work The Spirit of the Laws (1748). In it, he introduced the division of government into three branches — legislative, executive, and judicial — to prevent tyranny and ensure liberty. His ideas on Checks and Balances influenced the development of modern Democratic governments.
Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton was an English philosopher and scientist. Newton played an important role in the development of calculus and formulated the Laws of Motion.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a French philosopher and writer whose works influenced political theory and the Enlightenment. His most famous work, The Social Contract (1762), argued that legitimate political authority rests on the consent of the governed and that individuals form a collective “general will” that should guide the direction of the nation. Rousseau believed in Popular Sovereignty, advocating that the government should act in the interests of the common good. His ideas on democracy, individual freedom, and equality influenced the French Revolution and helped shape modern political thought.
Adam Smith
Adam Smith was a Scottish economist and philosopher. Regarded as the “Father of Modern Economics,” his most influential work, The Wealth of Nations (1776), laid the foundations for classical economics and introduced key concepts such as the “invisible hand.”
Voltaire
Voltaire was a French philosopher during the Enlightenment. He was known as an advocate of key concepts framed in the U.S. Constitution — Free Speech, Freedom of Religion, and Separation of Church and State.
John Wilkes
John Wilkes was a British politician, journalist, and advocate for civil liberties. He gained fame for his outspoken criticism of the British government and King George III, particularly through his publication The North Briton, where he attacked government policies. In 1763, Wilkes was arrested for seditious libel for comments he made in Issue 45 of the Briton. Wilkes argued he was protected from the charge because he was a member of Parliament. In Parliament, there was a debate over the issue. George Grenville wanted Wilkes arrested, but William Pitt argued against it. A judge agreed with Grenville, and Wilkes and 48 others were arrested. Many people in Britain — and the American Colonies — supported Wilkes. The slogan “Wilkes, Liberty, and Number 45” became popular.
Geography and the Environment
Boston
Boston was a major center of political activity and resistance during the American Revolution. Key events, such as the Boston Massacre (1770) and the Boston Tea Party (1773), took place in Boston. Important leaders, such as James Otis, Samuel Adams, John Adams, and Joseph Warren, lived in Boston.
Charleston
Charleston, South Carolina, was a significant colonial port city and the wealthiest city in the Southern Colonies. It played an important role in the Transatlantic Slave Trade and was an economic center for rice, indigo, and cotton production. Christopher Gasden and the Charleston Sons of Liberty led the Patriot Cause in South Carolina.
New York City
New York City, originally New Amsterdam under Dutch rule, became a vital commercial and political hub in Colonial America. Resistance to British policies was led by the New York Sons of Liberty.
Philadelphia
Philadelphia was the largest city in the American Colonies and played an important role in the American Revolution. It hosted both the First and Second Continental Congresses, where the Declaration of Independence was debated and adopted in 1776. Philadelphia was also the site of the Constitutional Convention in 1787, where the U.S. Constitution was drafted, making it a key center for the birth of American democracy.
Culture and Society — Protestant Evangelicalism
John Allen
Following the Gaspee Affair, Reverend John Allen delivered the sermon An Oration Upon the Beauties of Liberty. Allen criticized the British government’s decision to send people accused of burning the ship Gaspee to England for trial. He also challenged William Legge, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, asking him if he would like “…to have his Birthright, Liberty and freedom as an Englishman taken away by his King, or by the Ministry, or both? Would not your Lordship immediately say it was Tyranny, Oppression and Destruction by a despotic power?”
Jonathan Edwards
Jonathan Edwards was a Connecticut preacher whose ideology was influenced by John Locke and Isaac Newton. Edwards was inspired to hold revivals and deliver powerful sermons by Gilbert Tennant and George Whitefield. His famous sermon Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God was known to cause strong emotional reactions in his audience.
George Whitefield
George Whitefield was an English preacher who held revivals throughout the American Colonies during the Great Awakening. Whitefield was influenced by John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, and his brother, Charles Wesley.
Unit 3 Topics and Key Concepts
Key Concepts
3.1 — British attempts to assert tighter control over its North American colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self-government led to a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War.
3.2 — The American Revolution’s democratic and republican ideas inspired new experiments with different forms of government.
3.3 — Migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries, and trade intensified conflicts among peoples and nations.
Topics
- 3.1 — Contextualizing Period 3
- 3.2 — The Seven Years’ War (The French and Indian War)
- 3.3 — Taxation Without Representation
- 3.4 — Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution
- 3.5 — The American Revolution
- 3.6 — The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals
- 3.7 — The Articles of Confederation
- 3.8 — The Constitutional Convention and Debates over Ratification
- 3.9 — The Constitution
- 3.10 — Shaping a New Republic
- 3.11 — Developing an American Identity
- 3.12 — Movement in the Early Republic
- 3.13 — Continuity and Change in Period 3
