Overview
Following the passage of the Intolerable Acts, Patriot leaders in Massachusetts asked the other colonies for support and started to prepare for hostilities with British forces.
While many colonies responded by sending food and supplies to the city of Boston, some also called for an intercolonial Congress to discuss a unified response to the Intolerable Acts. During the summer of 1774, colonial legislatures elected delegates to the First Continental Congress.
On September 1, General Thomas Gage ordered British troops to seize and remove military supplies from a storehouse in Boston. Rumors quickly spread that the British were attacking Boston and burning the city. Thousands of Massachusetts Militiamen responded to the “Powder Alarm” by traveling to Boston to see what was happening.
Although order was peacefully restored in Boston, General Gage responded by fortifying the city. Patriot leaders, believing this to be a precursor to war, established the Massachusetts Provincial Congress and asked neighboring colonies to support an “Army of Observation” to defend against British hostilities.
Meanwhile, other colonies followed Massachusetts’ lead and organized resistance, including a Provincial Congress and a Committee of Safety. These were joined by Committees of Inspection, which were set up to enforce the rules of the Continental Association, an intercolonial trade embargo of British goods.
As tensions increased between Patriots and British officials throughout the colonies, General Gage was directed to take action. On the night of April 18, 1775, he sent an expedition to Concord with orders to seize and destroy military supplies hidden there by the Committee of Safety.
Upon learning of this expedition, express riders carried out the “Midnight Ride” and warned the countryside the British were on the move.
At dawn on April 19, the British marched into Lexington, where Captain John Parker and his militia were assembled. Soon after, a shot rang out, the British fired on the militia, and the Battles of Lexington and Concord started. After a day-long series of battles and skirmishes, the British returned to Boston and were quickly surrounded by militiamen from Massachusetts, initiating the Siege of Boston. Over the next week, they were joined by troops from the other New England Colonies, forming the first actual American army.
The Second Continental Congress convened soon after. Instead of dealing with Parliament’s refusal to repeal the Intolerable Acts, it had to deal with the outbreak of hostilities. While many members still hoped for a peaceful resolution, Congress organized the Continental Army and elected George Washington to lead it.
After the Battle of Bunker Hill, the chances of peacefully ending hostilities diminished. While the Siege of Boston continued, Congress authorized an Invasion of Quebec, hoping to convince the Canadians to join the Patriot Cause. This invasion was stopped at Quebec at the end of 1775, and American forces besieged the city until the spring of 1776.
Although Washington was able to force the British out of Boston, the war in the North shifted to New York City. The British invaded and slowly pushed Washington out of New York, across New Jersey, and into Pennsylvania. At the same time, the Northern Army retreated from Quebec to Fort Ticonderoga.
At this point, despite the Declaration of Independence, it looked like all hope was lost.
However, Washington and his Generals decided on a bold maneuver to turn the tide. On Christmas Night, the Continental Army crossed the Delaware River and attacked Trenton. The stunning victory boosted morale, increased enrollment in the army, and helped push the British back to New York in early 1777.
In 1777, the British carried out two campaigns. The first, led by General John Burgoyne, was supposed to capture Albany, New York, and cut off New England from the other colonies. The second, led by General William Howe, intended to capture Philadephia.
While Washington engaged Howe and tried to save the nation’s capital, Burgoyne invaded northern New York and slowly worked his way toward Albany. Washington failed to stop Howe, but General Horatio Gates, with bold field leadership from General Benedict Arnold, blocked Burgoyne at Saratoga. Eventually, Burgoyne was forced to surrender at Saratoga, which caught the attention of European nations.
Washington and the Continental Army spent the Winter at Valley Forge (1777–1778), where the troops underwent essential military training. Meanwhile, Burgoyne’s defeat helped convince the French to sign a Treaty of Alliance with the United States (February 6, 1778).
In the spring of 1778, the threat of French forces attacking New York led the British to abandon Philadelphia. Washington moved out of Valley Forge and engaged General Henry Clinton at Monmouth Court House (June 28). Although the battle was considered a draw, it showed the newly trained Continental Army could hold its own with the British. Both armies moved north — the British to New York City and the Americans to New Jersey.
Meanwhile, the war spread to the West. Native American Indians, allied with the British, carried out attacks on American settlements in Kentucky. George Rogers Clark was given command of American forces and started to retaliate against the Indians.
French forces arrived in the fall of 1778, leading to the Battle of Rhode Island (August 29). However, communication and cooperation between American and French leaders was disorganized. The British retained control of Rhode Island after the French abandoned the mission, forcing the Americans to withdraw.
With the war in the North at a standoff, the British turned their attention to the South. British military leaders were led to believe there were Loyalists in the Southern Colonies willing to take up arms, fight for the Crown, and bring an end to the war. This idea was shared by former Royal Governors and military leaders alike. While this idea might have been true in concept, it failed to materialize in terms of troops in the field.
Regardless, at the end of 1778, the British started their Southern Campaign by capturing Savannah, Georgia (December 29). The goal of the campaign was to take control of the Southern Colonies and then move north while British forces maintained control of New York.
Through 1779, American forces slowly made their way toward Savannah while Charleston prepared for a British attack. Meanwhile, Americans continued to deal with Indians in the West, in Kentucky and Tennessee, and in the North, in the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania. Massachusetts organized its own expedition to attack British forces at Penobscot, Maine. This expedition ultimately failed and included the largest naval defeat of the war for American forces.
In September 1779, American and French forces laid siege to Savannah but were repelled. The French retreated to the West Indies, and the Americans fell back to Charleston. A harsh winter set in, contributing to unrest in the Continental Army’s camp at Morristown, New Jersey. Meanwhile, British forces left New York and sailed for Charleston.
By April 1780, British forces were in position and opened the Siege of Charleston. American forces were eventually forced to surrender, giving the British control of South Carolina. General Clinton left General Charles Cornwallis in command and tasked him with subduing North Carolina and Virginia. During the siege, Lieutenant Colonel Banatre Tarleton gained a reputation for brutality as he attacked and massacred American forces outside of Charleston.
General Horatio Gates was sent to North Carolina to assemble a new Southern Army to engage Cornwallis. Meanwhile, Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion organized militia forces in South Carolina and started attacking British outposts and supply lines. On August 16, 1780, Cornwallis engaged Gates at the Battle of Camden and crushed him. Gates, once hailed as the “Hero of Saratoga,” fled from the battlefield.
Two days after Camden, Sumter’s forces were badly beaten at Fishing Creek, leaving Marion as the only American resistance in South Carolina. Meanwhile, American militia forces, known as the “Overmountain Men,” from Eastern Tennessee and Western North Carolina mobilized and started to attack British outposts in western South Carolina.
While Marion escalated his attacks, Cornwallis started to prepare to invade North Carolina and sent Major Patrick Ferguson into the Carolina Backcountry. Ferguson was ordered to raise Loyalist volunteers and keep the Overmountain Men from attacking Cornwallis’ army as he moved into North Carolina. Instead of attacking Cornwallis, the Overmountain Men pursued Ferguson and decimated his entire force at the Battle of Kings Mountain (October 7, 1780). With his left flank exposed, Cornwallis abandoned his invasion of North Carolina and withdrew to South Carolina. Afterward, Cornwallis sent contingents on raids in South Carolina and Virginia.
George Washington decided to replace General Gates with General Nathanael Greene, who traveled to North Carolina with 2,500 troops. Soon after Green arrived, he made a bold strategic move by dividing his army and sending General Daniel Morgan to South Carolina.
In January 1781, Cornwallis learned Greene had divided his army. He responded by sending Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton to engage Morgan. On January 16, Morgan lured Tarleton into a trap at Cowpens, South Carolina, and routed him. Morgan rejoined with Greene, who was being pursued by Cornwallis. Meanwhile, Francis Marion, who was joined by Colonel Henry “Light-Horse Harry” Lee, continued to harass British outposts in South Carolina.
Cornwallis chased after Greene, who crossed the Dan River and moved into Virginia. By the time Cornwallis arrived at the river, it was impassable, forcing him to abandon the chase. Soon after, American forces started to harass the rear of the British Army while Thomas Sumter renewed his attacks in South Carolina. By the end of February 1781, Spanish forces were en route to Pensacola, in East Florida, to attack the British stronghold.
By March 1781, more French forces had arrived. Washington met with General Comte Jean de Rochambeau and discussed an attack on New York City. About a week later, on March 15, 1781, Cornwallis attacked Greene at Guilford Courthouse, North Carolina. Although the British won the battle, they suffered heavy casualties, forcing Cornwallis to withdraw to Wilmington. Three days later, a British fleet, under the command of Admiral Comte Francois de Grasse, set sail for the West Indies.
Greene continued to attack British outposts, inflicting casualties on British forces and forcing them to use up supplies. Cornwallis, in need of reinforcements, asked General Henry Clinton to send reinforcements from New York to join him at Yorktown, Virginia.
In April 17681, Spanish forces laid siege to Pensacola while the Marquis de Lafayette arrived at Richmond with about 1,200 men. Cornwallis entered Virginia on May 10 and destroyed everything in his path on the way to Yorktown, where he arrived on August 1, where he expected to receive supplies and troops that had been sent by Clinton.
Soon after, Lafayette informed Washington that Cornwallis was in Yorktown and planned to use it as his new base of operations. Washington ordered Lafayette to trap Cornwallis in Yorktown while Admiral de Grasse and his fleet were on their way to the Chesapeake Bay.
On August 12, 1781, Washington and Rochambeau started to march south to Yorktown. The army marched through Philadelphia in early September. Then, on September 5, the British ships sailing from New York were blocked by the French Fleet at the Battle of the Capes and forced to withdraw. This left Cornwallis isolated and trapped in Yorktown.
Washington and de Rochambeau arrived at Yorktown on September 28, 1781, and the Siege of Yorktown started. This lasted until October 16, when some British forces tried to escape, but the attempt was ruined by bad weather. Cornwallis met with his officers, and they agreed they had no option but to surrender. The next day, a drummer boy, followed by an officer waving a white handkerchief, appeared and approached the American and French troops. After a day of negotiation, the Articles of Capitulation were signed on October 19.
Although sporadic fighting continued, British forces started to evacuate, taking Loyalists with them. As the British withdrew from the South, American forces moved in and took control. In the West, Indians continued to fight, leading to several intense battles.
On December 14, 1782, British forces evacuated Charleston, South Carolina, allowing General Nathanael Greene and his troops to march in and occupy the city. Ten days later, on December 24, General de Rochambeau and French forces left Boston and sailed for the West Indies. Meanwhile, American and British officials agreed to a peace treaty, which was sent to the Confederation Congress.
In March 1783, some officers in the Continental Army, upset with Congress’s failure to honor its promises, threatened to seize control of the army. General Washington met with his officers and called on them to trust his judgment that Congress would make good on their promises. Then he prepared to read a letter to them, saying, “Gentlemen, you will permit me to put on my spectacles, for I have not only grown gray but almost blind in the service of my country.” This singular moment brought tears to many of the men who abandoned the “Newburgh Conspiracy,” agreeing to resolutions that reaffirmed their support for Washington and Congress.
The Treaty of Paris was formally concluded on September 3, 1783. Britain agreed to recognize the independent United States of America and ceded its territory south of the Great Lakes to the new nation. Over the next month, the Continental Army was slowly reduced. By November 3, 500 troops and 100 artillerymen were left, all under the command of Colonel Henry Jackson.
British forces left New York City on November 25, 1783. When they left, General Washington led American forces into the city, ending seven years of British occupation. On December 23, Washington resigned as Commander-in-Chief and gave his sword to Thomas Mifflin, President of the Confederation Congress.
Thematic Focus
APUSH Topic 3.5’s thematic focus is “America in the World.” From 1775 to 1783, the American Colonies engaged in a war against the most powerful nation in the world. Despite regional differences, political and military leaders were able to hold the confederation of colonies together under incredible odds. They maintained an army and navy, funded military operations, negotiated for foreign support, and used unorthodox means of fighting to eventually force British forces to surrender, leading to negotiations for peace — and recognition of the independent United States of America.
Learning Objective
The Learning Objective for this topic is to be able to explain the various factors that contributed to the American victory in the War for Independence. The main factors were:
Leadership — American forces benefitted from leaders who had to keep their troops together and focused on challenging British military might, even when the odds were against them. George Washington was the leader in this strategy, always working to maintain a level of confidence in the American Cause despite personal doubts the war effort would succeed.
Tactics — American military leaders often used unorthodox tactics against British forces. This included Washington’s bold sneak attack on Trenton and his nighttime escape to Princeton. More famously, it was the “guerilla warfare” used by Francis Marion in South Carolina and Nathanael Greene’s war of attrition in the South. Greene famously said, “We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again.” Despite the string of losses he suffered during the Southern Campaign, his strategy wore down British forces, who sought refuge in Yorktown, Virginia.
Financial Support — Many of America’s wealthiest men used their personal fortunes to fund the war effort. Robert Morris is known as the “Financier of the Revolution.” George Washington also used his own funds to pay troops at times when he needed them to extend their commissions. Congress also issued paper money, known as “Continentals,” that fluctuated widely in value.
Foreign Support — Foreign adventurers who were inspired by the ideals of the Enlightenment and the struggle for independence traveled to America and joined the fight. These included the Maquis de Lafayette, Johann de Kalb, Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, Thaddeus Kosciuszko, and Casimir Pulaski.
International Diplomacy — In 1775, Congress established the Committee of Secret Correspondence, which was tasked with carrying out diplomatic efforts to secure funding and support for the war. This ultimately led to the Treaty of Alliance with France, which was signed in 1778, and a loan of $2 million from the Netherlands.
Historical Developments
Although the British Army and Navy were considered the best in the world, the British were also hoping for significant military support from American Loyalists. On many different occasions, they expected Loyalists to turn out and aid the war effort. While they did turn out, it was never with the number of troops the British expected or hoped for. Further, Loyalists were defeated in two important battles — the Battle of Moore’s Creek Bridge (February 27, 1776) and the Battle of Kings Mountain (October 7, 1780) — which helped turn the tide of the war.
Throughout the war, General Washington and his officers were able to hold the main Continental Army together through campaigns in Boston, New York, New Jersey, and Philadelphia. Several times, the army was able to miraculously escape from the British Army and continue to fight another day. Although Nathanael Greene is recognized as one of Washington’s most trusted officers, men like Henry Knox and John Glover carried out bold plans that kept the American war effort alive.
During the Siege of Boston, Knox led an expedition to Fort Ticonderoga to retrieve cannons and artillery. He transported them to Boston, where they were used to fortify Dorchester Heights. This threatened British warships in Boston Harbor and convinced the British to evacuate Boston.
Glover and the men in his command were fishermen from Marblehead, Massachusetts. After the Battle of Long Island, the “Marblehead Men” successfully transported the Continental Army from Brooklyn Heights to Manhattan Island during the dead of night in thick fog. General Washington called on Glover again when he needed experienced boatmen to transport the army across the Delaware River on Christmas Night so it could attack the British outpost at Trenton on December 26, 1776.
From the first day of the war, when thousands of Massachusetts Militia and Minutemen responded to the Lexington Alarm, colonial militias played a significant role in America’s victory in the war. This was not unique to New England, as militia forces in the Middle Colonies, Southern Colonies, and Western Territories contributed to the victory. Perhaps the most important of these were Marion’s Men, who were led by Francis Marion in a guerilla campaign against British forces in South Carolina. The Overmountain Men also won the Battle of Kings Mountain and helped turn the tide of the Southern Campaign in favor of the Americans.
France and Spain provided military support, and France was the first nation to recognize the United States as an independent nation openly. Although some foreign soldiers, like Lafayette, played in important role in the course of the war, larger French and Spanish forces paid dividents in the later years of the war, helping to defeat British forces at Yorktown and Pensacola.
Review Video
This video from Heimler’s History provides an excellent overview of APUSH 3.5. You can also check out our APUSH Guide, which provides a look at all Units and Topics in the APUSH Curriculum.
Vocabulary and Notes
The following terms and definitions relate to the Key Concepts for Unit 3 and are broken into sections by APUSH Themes. Within the explanations of APUSH 3.5, Terms are links to content on American History Central that should provide a more comprehensive understanding of each topic. Terms and definitions are organized according to the APUSH Themes:
- American and National Identity
- Work, Exchange, and Technology
- Migration and Settlement
- Politics and Power
- America in the World
- Geography and the Environment
- Culture and Society
American and National Identity — Groups
Continental Army
During the Siege of Boston, the Second Continental Congress agreed to take control of the New England Army of Observation, which was transitioned to the Continental Army. On June 15, 1775, George Washington was elected Commander-in-Chief.
Loyalists
Loyalists were Americans who remained loyal to the British Crown during the American Revolution and American Revolutionary War. They included formerly enslaved people who chose to fight for the Crown. In Virginia, John Murray, Lord Dunmore, raised a regiment of men known as the “Ethiopian Regiment.”
Marblehead Men
After the Siege of Boston started, Colonel John Glover marched his regiment to Boston. Known as “Glover’s Regiment” and the “Marblehead Men,” it became the 14th Continental Regiment. After the Battle of Long Island, they rowed Washington’s army across the East River to escape British forces. Soon after, Glover led his men at the Battle of Pell’s Point. Although he was forced to retreat, he delayed the British long enough to allow Washington to plan his escape to White Plains. Glover and his men piloted the Durham Boats during the Crossing of the Delaware River and then fought at Trenton. Glover’s Regiment was disbanded on December 31, 1776, when their enlistments expired. Glover went home to tend to his sick wife but later rejoined the war effort and commanded Massachusetts troops during the Saratoga Campaign and the Battle of Rhode Island.
Marion’s Men
The militiamen who volunteered to fight under Francis Marion, the “Swamp Fox,” were known as “Marion’s Men.” Operating primarily in South Carolina, they conducted irregular warfare, utilizing hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, and surprise attacks against British forces and Loyalists. Marion’s Men were known for their ability to use the terrain to their advantage. Their unorthodox methods disrupted British supply lines and communication.
Midnight Riders
The Midnight Riders were Express Riders who spread the Lexington Alarm on the night of April 18–19, 1775. The most famous of these riders were Paul Revere, William Dawes, and Samuel Prescott. Together, they alerted people living along the road from Boston to Concord.
New England Army of Observation
The Massachusetts Provincial Congress endorsed the New England Army of Observation. Following the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the army assembled around Boston and kept British forces trapped in the city. It was the precursor to the Continental Army.
Overmountain Men
The Overmountain Men were American frontiersmen who lived west of the Appalachian Mountains and participated in the American Revolutionary War. They are best known for their victory over British Loyalist forces at the Battle of Kings Mountain in 1780.
Patriots
Patriots were Americans who supported the ideals of Democracy and Republicanism that embodied the American Revolution. They came from all walks of life, including wealthy landowners, artisans, free people of color, and former slaves. The 1st Rhode Island Regiment, led by James Varnum, is considered to be the first black military unit in the U.S. Army. It was also known as “Varnum’s Regiment” and the “Black Regiment.”
Politics and Power — American Military Leaders
Benedict Arnold
Benedict Arnold was a General in the Continental Army. He was instrumental in the capture of Fort Ticonderoga at the beginning of the war and played an important role during the Invasion of Quebec. Arnold led a makeshift fleet of ships in the Battle of Valcour Island (October 11–13, 1776), which helped delay the British invasion of the Hudson River Valley. During the Saratoga Campaign, he led troops and took action that helped secure victories at Fort Stanwix, Freeman’s Farm, and Bemis Heights, ultimately leader to the surrender of the British Army. By 1779, Arnold was communicating with British officers and conspiring to turn West Point over to them. When the plot was discovered, Arnold fled and joined the British Army. He led British forces on raids in Connecticut and Virginia.
Horatio Gates
Horatio Gates was an officer in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He led American forces to victory at Saratoga but failed at Camden. He was also involved in the Conway Cabal, a plot against George Washington, and the Newburgh Conspiracy against Congress.
Nathanael Greene
Nathanael Green was an officer in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He was one of George Washington’s most trusted officers and led American forces to a strategic victory in the Southern Campaign. Although he lost most of his battles tactically, they resulted in strategic victories and contributed to the British surrender at the Battle of Yorktown.
John Paul Jones
John Paul Jones was a Scottish-American naval commander who is regarded by many historians as the “Father of the American Navy.” Jones gained fame as commander of the Bonhomme Richard for his daring raids against British ships and coastal towns. In 1779, he defeated the British warship Serapis despite being heavily outgunned at the Battle of Flamborough Head. During the battle, the British demanded his surrender, and Jones replied, “I have not yet begun to fight!” His leadership boosted morale and showed the potential of the U.S. Navy.
Henry Knox
Henry Knox was an officer in the Continental Army and a close friend of George Washington. In 1775, Knox led the expedition to retrieve cannon and artillery from Fort Ticonderoga and served as the Continental Army’s chief artillery officer during the American Revolution.
Francis Marion
Francis Marion — the Swamp Fox — was an officer in the South Carolina Militia and Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He fought in the Battle of Sullivan’s Island, waged guerilla warfare on Loyalist and British forces, and fought at the Battle of Eutaw Springs. After the war, he served in the South Carolina Assembly.
George Washington
George Washington is a Founding Father known as the “Father of His Country.” He led the Continental Army to victory in the American Revolutionary War, played a key role in the development of the United States Constitution, and served as the First President of the United States.
Politics and Power — British Military Leaders
Henry Clinton
Henry Clinton was a British soldier and General during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783). He was placed in command of British forces in 1778. Despite early success, he was unable to defeat American forces, which led to the Surrender at Yorktown in October 1781.
Charles Cornwallis
Charles Cornwallis was a British soldier and General during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783). Despite many successes during the war, he was unable to defeat American forces and their French allies, which led to his surrender at Yorktown, Virginia, in October 1781.
Patrick Ferguson
Patrick Ferguson was an officer in the British Army during the American Revolutionary War. Ferguson is most famous for developing the Ferguson Rifle and for leading British forces at the Battle of Kings Mountain. Ferguson was defeated and killed at Kings Mountain, a major turning point in the American Revolutionary War.
Thomas Gage
Thomas Gage was a British officer who served as commander-in-chief of British forces in North America and as the Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the early days of the American Revolution. Gage was responsible for British actions that led to the Battles of Lexington and Concord.
William Howe
William Howe was a British officer who replaced Thomas Gage as commander-in-chief of British forces in North America. He led British troops to victories at the Battles of Bunker Hill and Long Island and then captured New York City. However, Howe was criticized for failing to take decisive action and crush the Continental Army. In 1777, he captured Philadelphia instead of assisting British forces during the Saratoga Campaign. Howe resigned in 1778 and returned to England. He was replaced by Henry Clinton.
Banastre Tarleton
Banastre “Bloody Ban” Tarleton was a British officer who rose to prominence during the American Revolutionary War. He was known for his brutal tactics, which earned his nickname. Tarleton, a skilled cavalry officer, played a role in many battles, including Monck’s Corner and Lenud’s Ferry. However, he is most well-known for Buford’s Massacre at Waxhaws and his defeat at the Battle of Cowpens.
Politics and Power — Campaigns and Key Battles
Lexington and Concord (April 18–19, 1775)
The Battles of Lexington and Concord were fought between Massachusetts Militia and British forces on April 19, 1775. The battles followed the Midnight Rides and the Lexington Alarm, which alerted the countryside to British troops marching to Concord. The situation escalated when the British fired on the Lexington Militia, starting the American Revolutionary War.
Siege of Boston (1775–1776)
The Siege of Boston was conducted by American militia forces against the British, who were trapped in the city following the Battles of Lexington and Concord. It lasted for 11 months and included the Battle of Bunker Hill and the formation of the Continental Army. The siege ended when Americans occupied Dorchester Heights, forcing the British to evacuate. This also ended the British occupation of Boston, which started in 1768.
Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775)
American forces occupied Breed’s Hill overlooking Boston Harbor on the night of June 16–17. On the 17th, British forces attacked and eventually overwhelmed the Americans. Although the Americans lost the Battle of Bunker Hill, they famously held their own and inflicted heavy casualties on the British before retreating. During the retreat, Joseph Warren, one of the most important leaders of the Patriot Cause in Boston, was killed.
Invasion of Quebec (1775–1776)
The Invasion of Quebec was a military expedition carried out by the Continental Army from 1775 to 1776 during the American Revolutionary War. American forces failed to capture Quebec City and convince Canada to become the 14th Colony, leading to a disastrous retreat from Canada that set the stage for the Saratoga Campaign in 1777.
New York Campaign (1776)
The New York Campaign was the first military campaign that occurred after the United Colonies declared independence. British forces landed on Staten Island in August 1776 and then invaded Long Island, pushing American forces to Manhattan Island. By November, General George Washington’s army was pushed out of New York and into New Jersey.
New Jersey Campaign (1776–1777)
After being pushed out of New York, General Washington retreated across New Jersey and crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania. British forces pursued him until December 1776 and then settled into winter quarters. As the year came to an end, Washington led his troops back across the Delaware River and attacked Trenton, starting a 10-day period that shifted the tide of the war and pushed the British back into New York.
Saratoga Campaign (1777)
The Saratoga Campaign lasted from June to October and ended in an American victory when the British army surrendered at Saratoga. It was a major turning point in the American Revolutionary War, helping convince the French to recognize the United States of America as an independent nation and provide military support in the fight for independence. The campaign was led by General John Burgoyne and was intended to capture western New York and cut the New England Colonies off from the other colonies. The plan depended on help from British forces in New York. General William Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, which took longer than expected, and he was unable to support Burgoyne.
Philadephia Campaign (1777–1778)
The Philadelphia Campaign was led by General William Howe, who planned to capture Philadelphia, the American capital. The campaign began in the summer of 1777, with British forces landing in Maryland and advancing toward Philadelphia. Despite victories at the Battles of Brandywine and Germantown, Howe was delayed. This allowed the Continental Army to regroup and kept him from returning to New York to aid Burgoyne’s Campaign. Howe ultimately captured Philadelphia in September 1777, but the victory failed to deliver a decisive blow to the American war effort. American forces spent the winter at Valley Forge, where they underwent military training, which prepared them for the Battle of Monmouth Courthouse in 1778. In this battle, the Americans fought the British to a draw. The British returned to New York City, while the Americans returned to northern New Jersey.
British Southern Campaign (1778-1781)
Following the Battle of Monmouth Courthouse, the war in the Northern Theater was at a standstill. Further complicating matters for Britain was that France decided to join the war in support of the United States. British officials responded by devising a plan to take control of the Southern Colonies. The plan depended on Southern Loyalists volunteering to take up arms against their friends and neighbors who supported the Patriot Cause. British forces started by capturing Savannah in December 1778. Nearly a year later, American and French forces tried to retake Savannah but failed. Afterward, the British set their sights on capturing Charleston, South Carolina.
Siege of Charleston (1780)
The Siege of Charleston was fought between the United States and Great Britain from April 1 to May 12, 1780, during the American Revolutionary War. General Benjamin Lincoln was forced to surrender, and more than 5,000 American troops were taken as prisoners. It was the most significant defeat suffered by American forces during the war and a major turning point in the conflict.
Battle of Camden (1780)
The Battle of Camden was fought between the United States of America and Great Britain on August 16, 1780. The British won the battle, which was one of the worst losses of the war for American forces. In the aftermath, British forces were in complete control of South Carolina and prepared to invade North Carolina.
Battle of Kings Mountain (1780)
American militia forces known as the Overmountain Men crushed Loyalist forces in South Carolina, ending British plans to invade North Carolina. The American victory was a turning point in the American Revolutionary War, and set events in motion that led to the Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781.
Yorktown Campaign (1781)
American and French ground forces under the commands of General George Washington and General Jean Comte de Rochambeau, in concert with French naval forces under the command of Admiral François-Joseph, Comte de Grasse, surrounded and entrapped the British army commanded by General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia. Following a siege and bombardment lasting about 20 days, Cornwallis surrendered his army to Washington on October 19, 1781.
America in the World
Franco-American Alliance
The Franco-American Alliance was a crucial military and diplomatic agreement between France and the United States that was made in 1778. After the American victory at Saratoga in 1777, France officially recognized American independence and agreed to provide military support. The French provided troops, naval forces, and financial assistance. French forces played an important role in forcing the British to surrender at Yorktown.
Geography and the Environment
Hudson River Valley
The Hudson River Valley, located in eastern New York, was a strategic region during the American Revolutionary War. The British sought to control the Hudson River to divide the rebellious New England colonies from the rest of the colonies. The valley was the site of key military actions, including the Battles of Saratoga, where American forces won a decisive victory that led to French support for the American cause.
Morristown, New Jersey
Morristown, New Jersey, served as a winter encampment for General George Washington and the Continental Army during the winters of 1777 and 1779–1780. The Hard Winter of 1779–1780 at Morristown was more severe than the more famous encampment at Valley Forge. Morristown’s strategic location near British-occupied New York City allowed Washington to monitor movements while regrouping and training his forces.
Newburgh, New York
Newburgh, New York, located on the Hudson River, was the site of the Continental Army’s last encampment during the American Revolutionary War in 1782–1783. It became historically significant due to the “Newburgh Conspiracy” in 1783, when frustrations over unpaid wages nearly led to a mutiny against Congress. General George Washington intervened by delivering a powerful speech known as the “Newburgh Address,” which eased tensions and reaffirmed loyalty to Congress.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was the center of the Patriot Cause from 1774 until the end of the war. It was the meeting place for the First Continental Congress, Second Continental Congress, and Confederation Congress. The Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776, at Carpenters’ Hall. The city also hosted the Constitutional Convention in 1787, where the U.S. Constitution was drafted. During the war, Philadelphia was briefly occupied by British forces in the Philadelphia Campaign of 1777.
Valley Forge, Pennsylvania
Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, was the site of the Continental Army’s winter encampment from 1777 to 1778. Under the leadership of General George Washington, roughly 12,000 troops suffered through harsh conditions — extreme cold, lack of supplies, and disease. However, Valley Forge was a turning point for the Continental Army. With the assistance of Baron von Steuben, the troops underwent strict training and emerged as a more disciplined and effective fighting force in the spring of 1779.
Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania
The Wyoming Valley, located in northeastern Pennsylvania, was the site of the Battle of Wyoming and the “Wyoming Massacre” on July 3, 1778. British forces, along with their Native American Indian allies (mainly from the Iroquois Confederacy), attacked American settlers. The attack resulted in the deaths of more than 200 settlers and led to the destruction of homes and farms. This led to a retaliatory expedition known as the Sullivan-Clinton Expedition. American forces destroyed Iroquois villages and crops, which forced them to flee from their lands. They took refuge at Fort Niagara, where many of them died from disease and starvation.
Unit 3 Topics and Key Concepts
Key Concepts
3.1 — British attempts to assert tighter control over its North American colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self-government led to a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War.
3.2 — The American Revolution’s democratic and republican ideas inspired new experiments with different forms of government.
3.3 — Migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries, and trade intensified conflicts among peoples and nations.
Topics
- 3.1 — Contextualizing Period 3
- 3.2 — The Seven Years’ War (The French and Indian War)
- 3.3 — Taxation Without Representation
- 3.4 — Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution
- 3.5 — The American Revolution
- 3.6 — The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals
- 3.7 — The Articles of Confederation
- 3.8 — The Constitutional Convention and Debates over Ratification
- 3.9 — The Constitution
- 3.10 — Shaping a New Republic
- 3.11 — Developing an American Identity
- 3.12 — Movement in the Early Republic
- 3.13 — Continuity and Change in Period 3
