Overview
On July 4, the Declaration of Independence was issued, publicly severing America’s ties to Britain and its “unwritten constitution,” which was a collection of documents, including the English Bill of Rights.
Congress called on the colonies to write new State Constitutions based on Republican Principles. Political leaders, many of whom were members of the Sons of Liberty and the Provincial Congresses, relied on their knowledge of legal precedent to craft new Constitutions. They understood how the American form of government had developed through Democratic principles and self-rule, starting with the old Colonial Charters.
Even before the Declaration of Independence was approved and announced, four Colonies adopted new Constitutions, and most of the others followed suit:
- New Hampshire — Approved on January 5, 1776.
- South Carolina — Adopted on March 26, 1776.
- Virginia — Adopted on June 29, 1776.
- New Jersey — Adopted on July 2, 1776.
- Delaware — Adopted on September 20, 1776.
- Pennsylvania — Approved on September 28, 1776.
- Maryland — Adopted on November 11, 1776.
- North Carolina — Adopted on December 18, 1776.
- Georgia — Adopted on February 5, 1777.
- New York — Adopted on April 20, 1777.
- Massachusetts — Ratified on October 25, 1780.
- Connecticut — Connecticut continued to operate according to its Colonial Charters until 1818.
- Rhode Island — Rhode Island continued to operate according to the 1663 Royal Charter, with modifications, until 1842.
Vermont also adopted a Constitution in 1777, but it was not recognized as a State at the time due to the dispute over its borders with New York and New Hampshire.
The Massachusetts Constitution was the first one voted on and ratified by eligible voters and remains in effect today.
As the American Revolutionary War continued and spread into the Western Frontier, the Second Continental Congress developed the Articles of Confederation — the first Constitution of the United States. The Articles were intended to solidify the union between the 13 States, but the process was difficult. Congress adopted the Articles in 1777, but it took nearly four years for the States to ratify them.
Although the Confederation Congress was able to ratify the Treaty of Paris with Great Britain, it did not have the authority to enforce the provisions. Within a year, a series of events further exposed the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.
In 1785, George Washington helped establish the Potomac Company to build a series of canals and locks connecting the Potomac River with the James River and Ohio River. Washington wanted to connect the East Coast with the Western Frontier.
Later that year, Virginia and Maryland realized they needed to reach an agreement over the use and jurisdiction of their shared waterway, the Potomac River. The delegates met at Mount Vernon and established the Mount Vernon Compact, which established various regulations regarding the river’s use.
The Mount Vernon Conference served as a model for other States to follow when negotiating with each other. Its success led James Madison to propose a larger conference to discuss interstate commerce and other issues. However, only five States sent delegates to the Annapolis Convention. During the proceedings, it became clear that another meeting, with a much broader scope, was going to be needed. The convention produced a report that was sent to Congress that suggested another convention.
Meanwhile, a rebellion took place in Massachusetts when farmers revolted against farm foreclosures and the imprisonment of debtors. Although Shays’ Rebellion was put down, it strengthened the argument that the central government was too weak. It’s inability to manage the finances of the young nation contributed to the uprising, and then its inability to put it down showed further weakness.
On May 14, 1787, 55 delegates from 12 states met in Philadelphia to debate revisions to the Articles of Confederation. However, many delegates, including James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, saw an opportunity to create an entirely new government. George Washington was chosen to preside over the meetings, which lasted until September 17. Over the course of 100 days, the delegates debated, presented plans and made compromises that led to the creation of the United States Constitution.
Thematic Focus
APUSH Topic 3.5’s thematic focus is “Politics and Power.” By 1776, the American Colonies started developing new governments. Each of the 13 Colonies transitioned to States, and most of them wrote and ratified new Constitutions. At the national level, the Continental Congress created the Articles of Confederation, which was intended to create a loose alliance between the States and maintain the authority of Congress. Although the Articles were designed to avoid creating a tyrannical government, the inherent weaknesses led to instability after the American Revolutionary War, including Shays’ Rebellion. However, Congress successfully resolved issues over Western Lands and was able to establish a framework for adding new States to the Union.
Learning Objective
The Learning Objective for this topic is to explain how different forms of government developed and changed during the Revolutionary Period. The key points are:
State Constitutions — 11 of the 13 Colonies wrote and ratified new State Constitutions. Rhode Island and Connecticut revised their Colonial Charters. These new and revised governing documents were inspired by the Revolutionary Ideals that drove the American Revolution.
National Government — The Second Continental Congress lacked Constitutional authority and only controlled national military affairs and foreign policy. The Articles of Confederation created a loose confederation between the 13 States, allowing them to work together on common issues, primarily foreign affairs.
Framework for Expansion — Nearly half the States had “Western Lands” that extended over and west of the Allegheny Mountains. By 1781, these states agreed to cede these lands to Congress, including the Ohio Country, or the “Old Northwest,” which was organized into the Northwest Territory through a series of ordinances. Congress agreed to use the Western Lands for the “common benefit” and agreed to create “Republican States,” ensuring equality between the original 13 States and any new States that were added to the Union.
Internal Unrest — Several events exposed the weaknesses of the National Government under the Articles of Confederation, including disputes between States over boundaries, the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, and Shays’ Rebellion. Further, the government was unable to levy taxes or raise an army to force British forces to abandon outposts on the Western Frontier.
Historical Developments
Many of the new State Constitutions placed power in the hands of the people. Even though voting rights were limited to men who owned property, government officials were elected, not appointed.
The State Constitutions created a framework of government built on the will of the people (Popular Sovereignty) and elected officials who were expected to represent the people in an honest, virtuous manner (Republicanism). They also implemented three branches of government (Executive, Legislative, and Judiciary) along with Checks and Balances to ensure the Separation of Powers. Most of these Constitutions also included a Bill of Rights to protect personal liberties and an Amendment Process.
As the delegates to the Second Continental Congress were drafting the Declaration of Independence, they were also developing a plan for unifying the 13 Colonies as part of the process to defeat Great Britain. In the summer of 1776, a committee composed of one delegate from each colony drafted the Articles of Confederation — America’s first constitution. Although the document created a weak Central Government compared to the Federal Government established by the current Constitution, the Articles successfully created a “firm league of friendship” that guided the new nation through its early years. However, there was no Legislative Branch or Judiciary Branch, and the inability of Congress to force the States to comply with its wishes led to difficulties in international trade, finances, interstate commerce, and foreign relations. Internal unrest eventually led to a call for a stronger Central Government.
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787, also known as the Ordinance of 1787, established the rules and guidelines for governing the Northwest Territory, including a bill of rights and prohibition of slavery. It also created the process for a territory to become a state and join the Union, with equal status to the 13 Original States.
Review Video
This video from Heimler’s History provides an excellent overview of APUSH 3.7. You can also check out our APUSH Guide, which provides a look at all Units and Topics in the APUSH Curriculum.
Vocabulary and Notes
The following terms and definitions relate to the Key Concepts for Unit 3 and are broken into sections by APUSH Themes. Within the explanations of APUSH 3.7, Terms are links to content on American History Central that should provide a more comprehensive understanding of each topic. Terms and definitions are organized according to the APUSH Themes:
- American and National Identity
- Work, Exchange, and Technology
- Migration and Settlement
- Politics and Power
- America in the World
- Geography and the Environment
- Culture and Society
American and National Identity — Groups
Second Continental Congress
The Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia’s Independence Hall on May 10, 1775, after the Battles of Concord and Lexington had been fought. This Congress issued the Olive Branch Petition, established the Continental Army, printed the first American money, declared American Independence, and established the Articles of Confederation.
Confederation Congress
The Congress of the Confederation was the governing body of the United States under the Articles of Confederation from 1781 until 1789. It was also known as the United States in Congress Assembled or the Confederation Congress. Although this Congress had limited authority, it succeeded in signing a peace treaty with Britain to end the American Revolutionary War. It also passed legislation that organized the territory that Britain ceded to the United States as the party of the Treaty of Paris in a way that satisfied the states.
Provincial Congresses
Provincial Congresses were temporary, self-governing bodies established by the American Colonies during the American Revolution. As tensions with Britain increased, these Congresses were established to replace British-controlled Colonial Assemblies. Provincial Congresses coordinated resistance, organized militias, and guided the transition from British rule to independence. They played an important role in building the foundation for state governments and the Continental Congress.
American and National Identity — Events
Mount Vernon Conference
The Mount Vernon Conference was held in 1785 at Mount Vernon, George Washington’s estate in Virginia. Delegates from Maryland and Virginia sought to resolve navigation and trade disputes over the Potomac River and the Chesapeake Bay. The successful resolution of these issues set a precedent for addressing interstate conflicts and encouraged further efforts toward national cooperation.
Mount Vernon Compact
The Mount Vernon Compact, also known as the Compact of 1785, was the agreement reached between Maryland and Virginia during the Mount Vernon Conference. It established guidelines for the shared use of the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay. It was a significant step toward interstate collaboration.
Annapolis Convention
The Annapolis Convention, held in Annapolis, Maryland, in 1786, discussed trade and economic issues among the states. Although only five states sent delegates, the convention recommended a broader meeting to address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. This recommendation ultimately led to the Philadelphia Convention of 1787, where the U.S. Constitution was drafted.
Shays’ Rebellion
Shays’ Rebellion was an insurrection in Massachusetts that showed the weakness of the national government under the Articles of Confederation and helped lead to the Constitutional Convention of 1787. It is sometimes called the “Last Battle of the American Revolution.”
American and National Identity — People
Abigail Adams
Abigail Adams was the wife of John Adams, the second President of the United States, and the mother of the sixth President, John Quincy Adams. Her letters and memoirs of the Revolutionary era are considered to be major historical documents. When she learned Congress was preparing to design a new government, she told her husband, “…remember the ladies and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors.”
John Adams
John Adams was a Founding Father, America’s First Ambassador to the Court of St. James (Great Britain), and the Second President of the United States. He was also the first Vice President, serving two terms under George Washington. Adams was the primary author of the Massachusetts Constitution.
Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton was a Founding Father and the first Secretary of the Treasury. He led calls for the Philadelphia Convention and co-authored the Federalist Papers. Hamilton authored an address at the Annapolis Convention encouraging all of the States to send delegates to a meeting in Philadelphia in 1787 to consider changes to the Articles of Confederation.
James Madison
James Madison was the fourth President of the United States and a principal author of The Federalist Papers. Some consider him the “Father of the Constitution.” During the Annapolis Convention, he and Alexander Hamilton suggested holding a larger convention to discuss fixing issues with the Articles of Confederation.
Robert Morris
Robert Morris (1734–1806) was a Founding Father who signed the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the United States Constitution. Morris is often referred to as the “Financier of the Revolution” for his role in using his own money, resources, and expertise to procure supplies for the Continental Army. He also helped establish the Bank of North America, the first bank to operate in the United States. In 1781, the bank issued currency, which was financially backed by Morris. After the war, Congress was in debt, and Morris suggested a 5% tax on imports. Under the Articles of Confederation, the proposal required a unanimous vote of the States, but Rhode Island and New York rejected it.
Benjamin Rush
Benjamin Rush was a Founding Father, Signer of the Declaration of Independence, Member of the Continental Army, and advocate for the ratification of the United States Constitution. Rush was also a prominent physician, educator, and proponent of women’s rights and the abolition of slavery. Rush played an important role in developing the Pennsylvania Constitution, which extended voting rights to the lower classes by eliminating property qualifications.
Thomas Paine
Thomas Paine was a Founding Father, a philosopher of the American Revolution, and a true revolutionary. His essays and pamphlets, especially Common Sense, were noted for their plain language, resonated with the common people of America, and roused them to rally behind the movement for independence. Paine contributed to the development of the Pennsylvania Constitution.
American and National Identity — Territorial Framework
Most of the Western Lands were organized into the Northwest Territory. Following the American Revolutionary War, the Confederation Congress organized the territory through the Ordinance of 1784, the Land Ordinance of 1785, and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. The Northwest Ordinance took the extraordinary steps of creating a Bill of Rights for the Northwest Territory and prohibiting slavery in the region.
Ordinance of 1784
The Ordinance of 1784 was the first of several attempts by the Confederation Congress to organize and govern lands ceded to the United States by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris following the end of the American Revolutionary War.
Land Ordinance of 1785
The Land Ordinance of 1785 was enacted by the Confederation Congress on May 20, 1785. It established policies and procedures for the orderly survey and settlement of lands purchased from Indian inhabitants in areas of North America ceded by Great Britain to the United States after the American Revolutionary War.
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
Enacted by the Confederation Congress on July 13, 1787, the Northwest Ordinance established a plan for governing the Northwest Territory. Modified several times, the document later served as a blueprint for adding new states to the Union as the United States expanded westward.
Politics and Power — Foundations of American Government
Colonial Charters
Colonial Charters were legal documents granted by the British Crown to establish colonies in North America. These charters typically outlined the structure of government and the recipients’ rights to govern the colonies. The Charters often included the boundaries of the colony and provisions for land distribution to colonists. Americans viewed these Charters as an extension of the British Constitution, which provided them with the same rights as any Subjects of the King. When the Crown altered or revoked Charters, it created tension between the Colonies and Britain, which contributed to the American Revolution.
Republican Principles
Republican Principles, or Republicanism, emphasize the importance of civic virtue, individual rights, and the common good in governance. Founded in Enlightenment ideas, Republicanism advocates for a government where power is derived from the people and exercised through elected representatives. It rejects monarchy and hereditary privilege in favor of equality, liberty, and the rule of law. Republican Principles influenced the Declaration of Independence, the United States Constitution, and the Bill of Rights.
Democratic Principles
Democratic Principles are based on rule by the people, ensuring that citizens have a voice in the government. These principles include majority rule, free and fair elections, political equality, and the protection of individual rights and liberties. In a Democracy, power is derived directly from the people, who participate in decision-making through voting and other forms of civic engagement. Democratic Ideals shaped the development and structure of American political institutions.
Direct Democracy
Direct Democracy is a system of government in which citizens directly participate in decision-making and lawmaking rather than electing representatives to do so on their behalf. In direct democracies, individuals vote on specific policies and laws rather than on representatives who make those decisions.
Representative Democracy
Representative Democracy is a system of government in which citizens elect representatives to make decisions and pass laws on their behalf rather than participating directly in the decision-making process. This form of Democracy ensures that the government reflects the will of the people while allowing for efficient governance in larger populations. Representatives are held accountable to the electorate through regular elections. Representative Democracy, as established in the United States, is based on the principles of Popular Sovereignty, political equality, and the protection of individual rights.
Popular Sovereignty
Popular Sovereignty is the principle that a government’s authority is created and sustained by the people’s consent. It asserts that the ultimate source of governmental power resides with the people, who can express their will through democratic processes such as elections.
Separation of Powers
Separation of Powers is a foundational principle in which the government’s power is divided among distinct branches (Legislative, Executive, and Judicial), each with specific responsibilities. This system is designed to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful by allowing Checks and Balances.
Politics and Power — Branches of Government
Executive Branch
The Executive Branch is responsible for enforcing and implementing government laws. In the United States, it is headed by the President, who serves as both the head of state and the Commander-in-Chief of the military. The President is supported by the Vice President, Cabinet, and federal agencies, all of which help administer government policies and national affairs.
Judicial Branch
The Judicial Branch interprets and applies the law, ensuring that legislation is in accordance with the Constitution. In the United States, this branch is led by the Supreme Court, which has the power to review laws and executive actions for constitutionality. The Judicial Branch also includes lower Federal Courts that handle various legal disputes and issues of federal law.
Legislative Branch
The Legislative Branch is responsible for making and passing laws. In the United States, this branch is composed of Congress, which is divided into two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Congress has the authority to draft legislation, levy taxes, declare war, and oversee the executive and judicial branches through its powers of checks and balances.
Politics and Power — Building Blocks of Government
Annual Elections
Annual Elections are a system in which government officials, such as legislators, are elected by the people every year. Early American colonists favored this frequent electoral cycle to ensure greater accountability and representation of the public’s interests.
Bicameral Legislature
A Bicameral Legislature is a lawmaking body composed of two separate chambers or houses. In the United States, Congress is bicameral, consisting of the Senate (upper house) and the House of Representatives (lower house), allowing for Checks and Balances within the legislative process.
Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights refers to the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, adopted in 1791. These amendments protect fundamental rights and liberties, such as freedom of speech, religion, and the press, as well as the right to a fair trial and protection against unreasonable searches and seizures.
Checks and Balances
Checks and Balances is a foundational principle in Democratic governance, particularly in the United States, that ensures the three branches of government — Executive, Legislative, and Judicial — maintain separate powers while providing mechanisms for each branch to limit or “check” the powers of the others. This system prevents any one branch from gaining too much authority. For example, Congress can pass laws, but the President can veto them, while the Judiciary can review the constitutionality of laws, ensuring that power is balanced across the branches.
Chief Executive
The Chief Executive is the head of the Executive Branch of government, responsible for enforcing laws and overseeing the administration of government policies. In the United States, the President is the chief executive, holding powers such as vetoing legislation, appointing federal officials, and commanding the military.
Lower Legislative House
The Lower Legislative House is one of the chambers in a Bicameral Legislature. In the United States, the House of Representatives is the Lower House, responsible for initiating revenue bills and more directly reflecting the population’s interests. Members are elected based on population size.
Unicameral Legislature
A Unicameral Legislature is a lawmaking body with a single legislative chamber or house. This system is simpler than a Bicameral Legislature, as all legislative authority is concentrated in one body. Nebraska is the only U.S. state with a Unicameral Legislature.
Upper Legislative House
The Upper Legislative House is one of the two chambers in a Bicameral Legislature. In the United States, the Upper House is the Senate. Senators serve longer terms (six years) compared to members of the Lower House, and each state is represented equally in the Senate, with two senators per state, regardless of population size. The Senate holds special powers, such as approving treaties and confirming presidential appointments, and plays a crucial role in balancing representation between smaller and larger states.
Geography and the Environment
Northwest Territory
The Northwest Territory was an important region of North America that played a key role in many of the events that led to the American Revolutionary War, the Westward Expansion of the United States, and the removal of Indian tribes from the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River.
Unit 3 Topics and Key Concepts
Key Concepts
3.1 — British attempts to assert tighter control over its North American colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self-government led to a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War.
3.2 — The American Revolution’s democratic and republican ideas inspired new experiments with different forms of government.
3.3 — Migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries, and trade intensified conflicts among peoples and nations.
Topics
- 3.1 — Contextualizing Period 3
- 3.2 — The Seven Years’ War (The French and Indian War)
- 3.3 — Taxation Without Representation
- 3.4 — Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution
- 3.5 — The American Revolution
- 3.6 — The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals
- 3.7 — The Articles of Confederation
- 3.8 — The Constitutional Convention and Debates over Ratification
- 3.9 — The Constitution
- 3.10 — Shaping a New Republic
- 3.11 — Developing an American Identity
- 3.12 — Movement in the Early Republic
- 3.13 — Continuity and Change in Period 3
