Overview
By 1787, only four years after the official end of the American Revolutionary War, many Americans were convinced that the new nation could not survive under the weak central government established by the Articles of Confederation.
Following two previous attempts to address growing concerns about the state of the nation — the Mount Vernon Conference (1785) and the Annapolis Convention (1786) — delegates from 12 of the 13 states assembled in Philadelphia during the summer of 1787 to revise the Articles of Confederation as authorized by Congress. However, the delegates soon developed other ideas and instead undertook the task of drafting an entirely new document.
Throughout a summer of heated debate and enlightened compromise between Federalists and Anti-Federalists, the delegates drafted a new Constitution that did far more than strengthen the authority of the central government.
Their work redefined relationships between the individual states and between the states and the central government. More importantly, though, it redefined relationships between the federal government and U.S. citizens. As the balance shifted from a loose confederation of 13 states that wielded their individual powers, a new government emerged, created by “We, the people of the United States.”
At the start, the Constitution lacked a Bill of Rights and neglected large portions of the populace, notably women and people of African descent. However, when judged by the standards of the time, the work of the delegates was truly revolutionary, creating a government “of the people, by the people, and for the people.” Further, it created a model that could be amended over time, allowing rights and freedoms to be extended to the very groups it initially neglected.
Thematic Focus
APUSH Topic 3.8’s thematic focus is “Politics and Power.” During the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 and the ensuing State Conventions, significant debates took place over the role the central government would have in the United States after it became clear the Articles of Confederation were too weak to continue. These debates helped define the role of the government in terms of policy, institutions, political parties, and citizens’ rights.
Learning Objective
The Learning Objective for this topic is to explain the differing ideological positions on the structure and function of the federal government. These differences of opinion led to the formation of a group that supported a strong Central Government (Federalists) and a group that supported a weaker Central Government (Anti-Federalists). The key points are:
Large States vs. Small States — Large states wanted more representation in the new government based on population and a Bicameral Legislature (Virginia Plan). Smaller states preferred a Unicameral Legislature in which each state had one vote (New Jersey Plan). These differences were resolved by the Great Compromise.
Counting Population — There was a debate between the Northern and Southern States counting the population because a significant portion of the South was made up of enslaved Africans and their descendants. This issue was resolved by the Three-Fifths Compromise.
Slavery — Although the word “slavery” was not found in the Constitution, it was a point of convention. While the Three-Fifths Compromise resolved the population issue, the delegates were still faced with disagreements over participation in the Transatlantic Slave Trade and Fugitive Slaves. These issues were resolved by the Slave Trade Compromise and the Fugitive Slave Clause.
Regulating Trade — The delegates debated tariffs on imports and the regulation of trade between the States. The Commerce Compromise resolved these issues.
Election of the Chief Executive — Although there were multiple debates over the inclusion of a Chief Executive, the debate over the election of the Chief Executive led to the creation of the Electoral College.
Individual Rights — One of the most significant debates that took place during the Convention and continued during the State Conventions was the fact that the Constitution did not include a Bill of Rights. Eventually, a compromise was reached that led to the inclusion of a Bill of Rights, which was done through the Amendment Process.
Historical Developments
The 55 delegates who attended the Convention worked through a series of complex, sometimes controversial, issues in order to craft America’s new system of government. They collaborated, negotiated, and ultimately agreed to compromises that set the foundation.
The Great Compromise solved the dispute between a one-house and two-house legislature. It set up two houses of the legislature, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate was based on equal representation, and the House was based on population. It is also known as the Connecticut Compromise because it was presented by Roger Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth who were both from Connecticut.
The Three-Fifths Compromise provided a “solution” for counting enslaved people as part of the population. This allowed the Southern States, where the practice was more prevalent, to include these people in the population count, which determined the number of members each Slave State would have in the House of Representatives.
The Commerce Compromise resolved the issue of imposing tariffs on imports and exports and regulating commerce between the States. The compromise applied tariffs to imports, but not exports, and gave the National Government the ability to regulate trade between the States. It also required all legislation dealing with commerce to be passed by a two-thirds majority vote in the Senate.
The Electoral College was created as an alternative to electing the Chief Executive instead of the direct popular vote of the people. Many of the delegates had concerns that direct election of the Chief Executive would lead to “mob rule.” It balanced the interests of Large States and Small States by ensuring a fairer election process. The system gave Large States an advantage in the initial round of popular voting, while small states gained a larger voice if no candidate secured a majority of Electoral Votes. In the latter case, the election was determined by the House of Representatives.
The Convention dealt with the practice of slavery by agreeing to the Slave Trade Compromise. South Carolina and Georgia relied heavily on their enslaved workers and opposed banning participation in the Transatlantic Slave Trade. The compromise allowed the Slave Trade to continue for another 20 years and required the Free States to deport runaway slaves back to the southern states. In March 1807, President Thomas Jefferson signed a bill into law that abolished the slave trade, effective January 1, 1808.
Two major factions developed during the Convention. The Federalists supported the ratification of the Constitution and a strong National Government, while the Anti-Federalists opposed both. Instead of requiring unanimous approval from all 13 States (per the Articles of Confederation), the Convention stipulated that ratification by nine States through special State Ratifying Conventions would be enough for the Constitution to become the supreme law of the land in those States. In doing this, the Convention appealed directly to the people, who had the opportunity to vote on the Constitution through their State Conventions.
Federalists like John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison wrote the “Federalist Papers” in support of ratification. However, the lack of a Bill of Rights was a concern for many, including the revolutionary leaders from Massachusetts, like Samuel Adams.
Massachusetts agreed to ratify the Constitution when Federalists agreed to add a Bill of Rights. This agreement is known as the “Massachusetts Compromise.”
Review Video
This video from Heimler’s History provides an excellent overview of APUSH 3.8. You can also check out our APUSH Guide, which provides a look at all Units and Topics in the APUSH Curriculum.
Vocabulary and Notes
The following terms and definitions relate to the Key Concepts for Unit 3 and are broken into sections by APUSH Themes. Within the explanations of APUSH 3.8, Terms are links to content on American History Central that should provide a more comprehensive understanding of each topic. Terms and definitions are organized according to the APUSH Themes:
- American and National Identity
- Work, Exchange, and Technology
- Migration and Settlement
- Politics and Power
- America in the World
- Geography and the Environment
- Culture and Society
American and National Identity — Events
Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin was a Founding Father, member of the Continental Congress, signer of the Declaration of Independence, and signer of the United States Constitution. Arguably the most accomplished individual in American history, he was also a successful printer, publisher, scientist, inventor, diplomat, civic leader, statesman, and philosopher, and helped negotiate French support during the American Revolutionary War. Franklin, who was 81 during the Convention, brought experience to the proceedings but sometimes struggled with being discreet. To preserve secrecy, chaperones were appointed to accompany him to social gatherings.
Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton was a Founding Father of our nation and the first Secretary of the Treasury. He led calls for the Philadelphia Convention and co-authored the Federalist Papers. During the Convention, Hamilton advocated for a strong central government. During the New York Constitutional Convention, Hamilton delivered a famous speech in support of ratification.
John Jay
John Jay was a Founding Father and the First Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Jay represented New York in the Continental Congress and was an author of the Federalist Papers. He wrote the Constitution of New York and served as Governor from 1795-1801.
James Madison
James Madison was the fourth President of the United States and a principal author of The Federalist Papers. Madison is considered by some to be the “Father of the Constitution.”
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson was a Founding Father and the third President of the United States. He wrote the Declaration of Independence and founded the University of Virginia. He also served as Governor of Virginia, Virginia Congressman, Minister to France, Secretary of State under George Washington, and Vice President under John Adams. Jefferson did not attend the Convention but referred to the quality of the delegates as exceptionally high, describing them as “demigods.”
George Washington
George Washington led the Continental Army to victory over the British in the Revolutionary War. He then served two terms as the first President of the United States under the Constitution. He was unanimously chosen to preside over the Convention.
American and National Identity — Events
Pennsylvania Mutiny
The Pennsylvania Mutiny took place on June 17, 1783. Around 400 soldiers from the Continental Army barricaded the members of Congress inside Independence Hall. The soldiers were upset because Congress failed to pay them for their service in the war. Alexander Hamilton negotiated with the soldiers, who agreed to allow the members to leave Independence Hall. The members of Congress left Philadelphia on June 22.
Mount Vernon Conference
The Mount Vernon Conference was held in 1785 at Mount Vernon, George Washington’s estate in Virginia. Delegates from Maryland and Virginia sought to resolve navigation and trade disputes over the Potomac River and the Chesapeake Bay. The successful resolution of these issues set a precedent for addressing interstate conflicts and encouraged further efforts toward national cooperation.
Mount Vernon Compact
The Mount Vernon Compact, also known as the Compact of 1785, was the agreement reached between Maryland and Virginia during the Mount Vernon Conference. It established guidelines for the shared use of the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay. It was a significant step toward interstate collaboration.
Annapolis Convention
The Annapolis Convention, held in Annapolis, Maryland, in 1786, discussed trade and economic issues among the states. Although only five states sent delegates, the convention recommended a broader meeting to address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. This recommendation ultimately led to the Philadelphia Convention of 1787, where the U.S. Constitution was drafted.
Shays’ Rebellion
Shays’ Rebellion was an insurrection in Massachusetts that showed the weakness of the national government under the Articles of Confederation and helped lead to the Constitutional Convention of 1787. It is sometimes called the “Last Battle of the American Revolution.”
Haldimand Affair
The Haldimand Affair refers to a conspiracy during the American Revolutionary War in which British Governor Frederick Haldimand of Quebec allegedly engaged in secret negotiations with the leaders of Vermont, including Ethan Allen, to have the state rejoin the British Empire. The negotiations fell apart when the British surrendered at Yorktown, and Vermont eventually ratified the U.S. Constitution (January 1791) and was accepted into the Union as the 14th State on March 4, 1791.
Migration and Settlement
Middle Passage
The Middle Passage was a route in the Triangular Trade System that started in Northwest Africa, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, and ended in the Americas. The Middle Passage is most well-known for its use in the Transatlantic Slave Trade and the terrible suffering it imposed on imprisoned Africans who were sold into slavery.
Transatlantic Slave Trade
The Transatlantic Slave Trade was a business in which the commodity was African men, women, and children. They were captured in Africa, transported across the Atlantic Ocean over the “Middle Passage,” and forced to work in the Americas. It was also part of the Triangular Trade System and the Mercantile System.
Politics and Power — Process
State Ratifying Conventions
State Ratifying Conventions were special assemblies convened in each of the Original 13 American states between 1787 and 1790 to debate and vote on the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. These Conventions were established to ensure that the decision to ratify the Constitution would come from representatives of the people rather than state legislatures. This process was driven by the debate between Federalists and Anti-Federalists.
Politics and Power — Rights and Freedoms
Natural Rights
Natural Rights are fundamental rights that all individuals possess by virtue of being human, regardless of laws or government. Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke argued that Natural Rights include life, liberty, and property. These rights are seen as inherent and inalienable, meaning they cannot be taken away by the government. The concept of Natural Rights influenced the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution, emphasizing that government exists to protect these rights.
Freedom of Assembly
Freedom of Assembly is the right of individuals to gather peacefully for meetings, protests, or other forms of collective expression. Protected under the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution; it allows people to come together to advocate for causes, express their opinions, and engage in political or social activities without fear of government interference, as long as the assembly remains peaceful.
Freedom of Religion
Freedom of Religion is the right of individuals to practice, change, or not practice a religion according to their beliefs without government interference. It is protected under the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which prohibits the establishment of a state religion — known as the Establishment Clause — and guarantees the free exercise of religion, ensuring religious diversity and individual choice in matters of faith.
Freedom of Speech
Freedom of speech is the right to express one’s opinions, ideas, and beliefs without government censorship or restraint. It is protected under the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution and serves as a cornerstone of democratic society. While this right is broad, it does have some limitations, such as prohibitions on incitement to violence or defamation.
Probable Cause
Probable cause refers to the legal standard in U.S. law that requires law enforcement or government officials to have a reasonable basis or sufficient evidence to believe that a crime has been committed before conducting a search, making an arrest, or obtaining a warrant. It is a safeguard against arbitrary police actions and is protected under the Fourth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, ensuring citizens’ rights to privacy and protection from unreasonable searches and seizures.
Protection from Double Jeopardy
Double Jeopardy is a constitutional protection under the Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution that prevents an individual from being tried twice for the same offense in the same jurisdiction after acquittal or conviction. It ensures fairness in the legal system by prohibiting repeated prosecutions for the same crime, preventing government overreach, and protecting individuals from legal harassment.
Protection from Seizure of Property
Seizure of Property refers to the act of law enforcement or government authorities taking possession of a person’s possessions, usually as part of a legal process. Under the Fourth Amendment, the U.S. Constitution protects individuals from unreasonable seizures. It requires seizure to be based on probable cause and typically requires a warrant issued by a judge. Property can be seized during criminal investigations, civil forfeiture, or through Eminent Domain, but legal protections ensure seizures must be lawful.
Right to Bear Arms
The Right to Bear Arms is the individual right to possess and carry weapons, protected under the Second Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Originally intended to ensure that citizens could form militias for defense, this right has been interpreted and debated in modern times as applying to personal self-defense and the ownership of firearms.
Separation of Church and State
Separation of Church and State is the principle that government and religious institutions should operate independently from each other, ensuring that no religion is given preferential treatment by the government. This is enshrined in the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which prohibits the establishment of a national religion and protects religious freedom.
Trial by Jury
Trial by Jury is a fundamental right guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. It allows individuals accused of a crime to have their case heard and decided by an impartial jury of their peers. It ensures ordinary citizens play a role in determining guilt or innocence, providing a check on government power.
Fair and Speedy Trial
The right to a Fair and Speedy Trial is guaranteed under the Sixth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. It ensures that people accused of crimes are brought to trial without unnecessary delays, preventing prolonged detention without resolution. A “fair” trial means the accused has the right to Trial by Jury legal representation and the ability to confront witnesses and present a defense. A “speedy” trial ensures justice is administered in a timely manner, safeguarding against potential abuses such as indefinite imprisonment or unfair delays in legal proceedings.
Politics and Power — Influences
Suffolk Resolves
The Suffolk Resolves were written by Joseph Warren in protest of the Intolerable Acts and military preparations taken by Governor Thomas Gage after the Powder Alarm. In its first official act, the First Continental Congress endorsed the Resolves and ordered colonial newspapers to print them.
Continental Association
The Continental Association was an organization created by the First Continental Congress to enforce the Articles of Association — a trade boycott against British merchants — unless Britain repealed the Coercive Acts.
Lee Resolution
On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced the Lee Resolution to Congress. The resolution called for the 13 Colonies to declare independence and dissolve their connection with Great Britain, take measures to form foreign alliances, and prepare a plan for their unification. On June 11, Congress responded by forming three committees, including the Committee of Thirteen, which was tasked with creating a plan for unification.
Model Treaty
The Model Treaty, drafted by the Continental Congress in 1776, was a guideline for American diplomats negotiating alliances and trade agreements during the American Revolution. It emphasized the establishment of commercial partnerships without political or military entanglements, focusing on free trade and mutual benefit between nations. The Model Treaty reflected Enlightenment ideals of peaceful commerce and sovereignty and aimed to secure economic alliances, particularly with France. It laid the foundation for the 1778 Treaty of Amity and Commerce with France.
Declaration of Independence
Drafted by Thomas Jefferson and edited by luminaries such as Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, the Declaration of Independence was adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776.
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
Enacted by the Confederation Congress on July 13, 1787, the Northwest Ordinance established a plan for governing the Northwest Territory. Modified several times, the document later served as a blueprint for adding new states to the Union as the United States expanded westward.
Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation was America’s first constitution. It was in effect from March 1, 1781, to March 4, 1789, when it was replaced by the United States Constitution.
Massachusetts Constitution
Adopted in 1780, the Massachusetts Constitution is the oldest functioning written Constitution in the world. Drafted primarily by John Adams, it served as a model for the U.S. Constitution. The document established a government with a Separation of Powers, including an Executive (governor), a Bicameral Legislature, and an independent Judiciary. It also included a Declaration of Rights, ensuring basic liberties such as Freedom of Speech and Religion. It also served as a model for other State Constitutions.
Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom
Drafted by Thomas Jefferson and passed by the Virginia General Assembly in 1786, the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom established religious liberty and the Separation of Church and state in Virginia. The statute declared that no individual should be forced to support or participate in any religious activity and that all citizens have the right to practice religion freely. This statute influenced the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution and became a foundational principle of Freedom of Religion.
Federalist Papers
The Federalist Papers are a series of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay between 1787 and 1788 to support the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. Published under the pseudonym “Publius,” they argued for a strong central government to replace the weak Articles of Confederation and explained how the proposed Constitution would preserve liberty while ensuring effective governance.
Politics and Power — Foundations of American Government
Democratic Principles
Democratic Principles are based on rule by the people, ensuring that citizens have a voice in the government. These principles include majority rule, free and fair elections, political equality, and the protection of individual rights and liberties. In a Democracy, power is derived directly from the people, who participate in decision-making through voting and other forms of civic engagement. Democratic Ideals shaped the development and structure of American political institutions.
Direct Democracy
Direct Democracy is a system of government in which citizens directly participate in decision-making and lawmaking rather than electing representatives to do so on their behalf. In direct democracies, individuals vote on specific policies and laws rather than on representatives who make those decisions.
Representative Democracy
Representative Democracy is a system of government in which citizens elect representatives to make decisions and pass laws on their behalf rather than participating directly in the decision-making process. This form of Democracy ensures that the government reflects the will of the people while allowing for efficient governance in larger populations. Representatives are held accountable to the electorate through regular elections. Representative Democracy, as established in the United States, is based on the principles of Popular Sovereignty, political equality, and the protection of individual rights.
Republicanism
In simple terms, Republicanism is an ideology that focuses on fair, balanced government, with an emphasis on honesty and virtue. A Republican government is driven by the will of the people instead of a monarch, dictator, elites, or the upper class. These values are found in ancient Greece and Rome and were revived during the Renaissance and influenced the Reformation and the Enlightenment. In England, it appealed to politicians who were way of the excessive power of the monarchy. During the American Revolution, Thomas Paine made the argument for American independence, based on Republicanism, in his pamphlet “Common Sense.”
Popular Sovereignty
Popular Sovereignty is the principle that a government’s authority is created and sustained by the people’s consent. It asserts that the ultimate source of governmental power resides with the people, who can express their will through democratic processes such as elections.
Separation of Powers
Separation of Powers is a foundational principle in which the government’s power is divided among distinct branches (Legislative, Executive, and Judicial), each with specific responsibilities. This system is designed to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful by allowing Checks and Balances.
Social Contract
The Social Contract is a political theory that originated during the Enlightenment and was developed by philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It proposes that individuals willingly agree to form a society and government, surrendering certain freedoms in exchange for protection and the preservation of their natural rights. In Locke’s view, governments are formed to protect life, liberty, and property, and if they fail to do so, citizens have the right to revolt. Rousseau emphasized the collective “general will,” where individuals work toward the common good.
Politics and Power — Branches of Government
Executive Branch
The Executive Branch is responsible for enforcing and implementing government laws. In the United States, it is headed by the President, who serves as both the head of state and the Commander-in-Chief of the military. The President is supported by the Vice President, Cabinet, and federal agencies, all of which help administer government policies and national affairs.
Judicial Branch
The Judicial Branch interprets and applies the law, ensuring that legislation is in accordance with the Constitution. In the United States, this branch is led by the Supreme Court, which has the power to review laws and executive actions for constitutionality. The Judicial Branch also includes lower Federal Courts that handle various legal disputes and issues of federal law.
Legislative Branch
The Legislative Branch is responsible for making and passing laws. In the United States, this branch is composed of Congress, which is divided into two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Congress has the authority to draft legislation, levy taxes, declare war, and oversee the executive and judicial branches through its powers of checks and balances.
Politics and Power — Building Blocks of Government
Annual Elections
Annual Elections are a system in which government officials, such as legislators, are elected by the people every year. Early American colonists favored this frequent electoral cycle to ensure greater accountability and representation of the public’s interests.
Bicameral Legislature
A Bicameral Legislature is a lawmaking body composed of two separate chambers or houses. In the United States, Congress is bicameral, consisting of the Senate (upper house) and the House of Representatives (lower house), allowing for Checks and Balances within the legislative process.
Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights refers to the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, adopted in 1791. These amendments protect fundamental rights and liberties, such as freedom of speech, religion, and the press, as well as the right to a fair trial and protection against unreasonable searches and seizures.
Checks and Balances
Checks and Balances is a foundational principle in Democratic governance, particularly in the United States, that ensures the three branches of government — Executive, Legislative, and Judicial — maintain separate powers while providing mechanisms for each branch to limit or “check” the powers of the others. This system prevents any one branch from gaining too much authority. For example, Congress can pass laws, but the President can veto them, while the Judiciary can review the constitutionality of laws, ensuring that power is balanced across the branches.
Chief Executive
The Chief Executive is the head of the Executive Branch of government, responsible for enforcing laws and overseeing the administration of government policies. In the United States, the President is the chief executive, holding powers such as vetoing legislation, appointing federal officials, and commanding the military.
Lower Legislative House
The Lower Legislative House is one of the chambers in a Bicameral Legislature. In the United States, the House of Representatives is the Lower House, responsible for initiating revenue bills and more directly reflecting the population’s interests. Members are elected based on population size.
Unicameral Legislature
A Unicameral Legislature is a lawmaking body with a single legislative chamber or house. This system is simpler than a Bicameral Legislature, as all legislative authority is concentrated in one body. Nebraska is the only U.S. state with a Unicameral Legislature.
Upper Legislative House
The Upper Legislative House is one of the two chambers in a Bicameral Legislature. In the United States, the Upper House is the Senate. Senators serve longer terms (six years) compared to members of the Lower House, and each state is represented equally in the Senate, with two senators per state, regardless of population size. The Senate holds special powers, such as approving treaties and confirming presidential appointments, and plays a crucial role in balancing representation between smaller and larger states.
America in the World — Influences
Renaissance
The Renaissance was a cultural, intellectual, and artistic movement that started in Italy in the 14th Century and spread throughout Europe, lasting until the 17th Century. It was characterized by a revival of interest in the classical art, literature, and learning of ancient Greece and Rome. It led to significant developments in art, architecture, science, and philosophy, led by notable figures like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Machiavelli.
Reformation
The Reformation was a religious movement that took place in the 16th Century and sought to reform the Roman Catholic Church. It started in 1517 when Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany, and led to a break in the Church and the establishment of Protestantism. Prominent leaders like John Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli contributed to the development of a new theology that spread across Europe and ignited the Wars of Religion between Catholic and Protestant nations.
Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement during the 17th and 18th Centuries that emphasized reason, individualism, and scientific inquiry over traditional authority and beliefs. Philosophers like as John Locke, Voltaire, and Immanuel Kant promoted ideas like Natural Rights, liberty, and the Social Contract, which influenced political revolutions and the development of democratic governments. The Enlightenment had a profound impact on modern philosophy, science, and politics, and influenced the American Revolution and the French Revolution.
Scientific Revolution
The Scientific Revolution occurred from the 16th to the 18th Century and led to a significant change in European thinking. The movement focused on reason, scientific inquiry, and experimentation to challenge the traditional views of the world. Pioneers like Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, and Isaac Newton made groundbreaking discoveries in astronomy, physics, and mathematics. The revolution led to the development of the Scientific Method and laid the foundation for modern science.
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution, which started in Britain in the late 18th Century and spread throughout Europe and North America, led to economic and technological change as nations transitioned from agriculture to industrialized production. Innovations like as the steam engine, mechanized textile production, and advances in metallurgy transformed industries and transportation. This movement reshaped societies, leading to urbanization, shifts in labor systems, and the rise of capitalism. However, it also created new social and environmental challenges.
French Revolution
The French Revolution (1789–1799) was inspired by the Enlightenment and the success of the American Revolution. It led to significant changes in France that affected its alliance with the United States. Disagreements in America over support for the French Revolution led to the development of political parties and policies that shaped the course of American history.
Geography and the Environment
Crown Lands
Crown Lands refer to territories owned and controlled by the British Crown in Colonial America. They were often used for various governmental purposes, including revenue generation through taxation, leasing, and granting land to settlers or colonial governments. The entire region west of the Allegheny Mountains was set aside for Native American Indians by the Proclamation of 1763. After the American Revolution, Crown Lands were redistributed by the newly independent States or the Federal Government.
Western Lands
Western Lands were the territories west of the Appalachian Mountains, acquired by the United States following the Treaty of Paris in 1783. These lands became a source of contention among the States and the Federal Government regarding ownership, settlement, and governance. The Western Land Ordinances, including the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, established guidelines for the settlement and eventual statehood of these territories, promoting westward expansion and land distribution.
Northwest Territory
Most of the Western Lands were organized into the Northwest Territory. Following the American Revolutionary War, the Confederation Congress organized the territory through the Ordinance of 1784, the Land Ordinance of 1785, and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. The Northwest Ordinance took the extraordinary steps of creating a Bill of Rights for the Northwest Territory and prohibiting slavery in the region.
Culture and Society
Republican Motherhood
Republican Motherhood was coined by historian Linda K. Gerber in an article she wrote in 1976 titled “The Republican Mother: Women and the Enlightenment – An American Perspective.” It refers to an ideology that emerged after the American Revolution, emphasizing the role of women in nurturing the values of Republicanism in their children. It held that women, as mothers, had a vital role in raising virtuous, educated, and civic-minded citizens who could contribute to the new republic. While women were not given direct political rights, such as voting, this concept elevated their status in society by recognizing their importance in shaping the future of the nation through family life and education. Republican Motherhood laid the foundation for later movements advocating for women’s rights and education.
Culture and Society — Slavery
Abolition Movement
The Abolition Movement was a social and political campaign aimed at ending slavery and the Slave Trade, particularly in the United States and Britain, during the 18th and 19th Centuries. In the U.S., abolitionists like Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, and William Lloyd Garrison fought to end the institution of slavery, which culminated in the Civil War and the passage of the 13th Amendment in 1865, abolishing slavery. The movement was driven by moral, religious, and political arguments against slavery, and it played an important role in advancing civil rights and equality in the U.S.
Black Codes and Slave Laws
Black Codes and Slave Laws existed in the colonies and territories before the establishment of the United States. These continued to be enforced even after the United States gained independence. In 1804, Ohio became the first state legislature to enact laws that restricted the rights and freedoms of blacks. Some of these laws remained in effect until 1886 — more than 20 years after the Civil War.
Fugitive Slave Laws
The Fugitive Slave Laws were a series of laws enacted in the United States to address the issue of escaped slaves. The first Fugitive Slave Act (1793) allowed slaveowners to capture escaped slaves across state lines and required that states cooperate in their return. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, part of the Compromise of 1850, strengthened the law by requiring the Free States to assist in the capture and return of runaway slaves. It also imposed penalties on those who aided fugitives. The harshness of the 1850 law intensified the Sectional Divide over slavery and fueled the Abolitionist Movement, ultimately leading to the outbreak of the Civil War.
Pennsylvania Abolition Society
Pennsylvania Abolition Society, also known as the “Philadelphia Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage,” was founded in 1775 in Philadelphia and was the first American organization dedicated to the abolition of slavery. Under the leadership of people such as Benjamin Franklin and Benjamin Rush the Society worked to end slavery in Pennsylvania gradually. It played a role in the early Abolition Movement, contributing to Pennsylvania’s 1780 Gradual Abolition Act, one of the first legislative measures to start the process of ending slavery in the U.S.
Tacit Approval of Slavery
Tacit Approval of Slavery refers to the implicit allowance of the institution of slavery by individuals, governments, or societies without explicitly saying so. In the early United States, this was reflected in the Constitution, which included the Three-Fifths Compromise and the Fugitive Slave Clause. Many Northern States, while not reliant on slavery, often tolerated it due to economic ties and a desire to maintain the Union.
Unit 3 Topics and Key Concepts
Key Concepts
3.1 — British attempts to assert tighter control over its North American colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self-government led to a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War.
3.2 — The American Revolution’s democratic and republican ideas inspired new experiments with different forms of government.
3.3 — Migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries, and trade intensified conflicts among peoples and nations.
Topics
- 3.1 — Contextualizing Period 3
- 3.2 — The Seven Years’ War (The French and Indian War)
- 3.3 — Taxation Without Representation
- 3.4 — Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution
- 3.5 — The American Revolution
- 3.6 — The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals
- 3.7 — The Articles of Confederation
- 3.8 — The Constitutional Convention and Debates over Ratification
- 3.9 — The Constitution
- 3.10 — Shaping a New Republic
- 3.11 — Developing an American Identity
- 3.12 — Movement in the Early Republic
- 3.13 — Continuity and Change in Period 3
