Overview
The delegates at the Philadelphia Convention replaced the Central Government of the Articles of Confederation with an entirely new government built on the concepts of Democracy and Republicanism. The end result was a Federal System that allowed for a stronger Federal Government while retaining the existing State Governments. The Constitution serves as the “supreme law of the land,” while the States have the ability to have their own governments and make their own laws.
AHC Note — APUSH 3.8, Constitutional Convention and Debates over Ratification, discusses the process of developing the Constitution through a series of compromises. The United States Constitution discusses the Articles, Clauses, and History.
Thematic Focus
APUSH Topic 3.9’s thematic focus is “Politics and Power.” During the debates that took place during the Philadelphia Convention, two groups emerged:
- Federalists, who favored a strong Central Government.
- Anti-Federalists, who favored a weaker Central Government.
Despite their differences, they discussed key issues that helped them design a government with three branches that included checks and balances between them to maintain a balance of power.
The Constitution also used Federalism to create a political system that included the Central Government and the States. While the Federal Government was given “delegated powers,” the States retained “reserved powers.”
One key feature of the Constitution was its ability to be changed through the Amendment Process. This allowed for a Bill of Rights to be added to the Constitution after it was approved and ratified.
Learning Objective
The Learning Objective for this topic is to explain the continuities and changes in the structure and functions of the government that occurred with the ratification of the Constitution.
Authority — The Articles of Confederation were almost entirely subject to the will of the States. The Constitution was the “supreme law of the land.”
Central Government — Like the Articles of Confederation, the Constitution included a central government. However, the Constitution strengthened it and gave it authority over the States in some areas.
Amendments — The Articles required a unanimous vote to make changes. The Constitution established a more flexible process that required only nine of the 13 States to approve changes.
Historical Developments
Delegates who participated in the Constitutional Convention created a limited, dynamic Central Government that embraced Federalism. They established three branches of the Federal Government with Checks and Balances.
Executive Branch — The Executive Branch is responsible for enforcing and implementing government laws. In the United States, it is headed by the President, who serves as both the head of state and the Commander-in-Chief of the military. The President is supported by the Vice President, Cabinet, and federal agencies, all of which help administer government policies and national affairs.
Judicial Branch — The Judicial Branch interprets and applies the law, ensuring that legislation is in accordance with the Constitution. In the United States, this branch is led by the Supreme Court, which has the power to review laws and executive actions for constitutionality. The Judicial Branch also includes lower Federal Courts that handle various legal disputes and issues of federal law.
Legislative Branch — The Legislative Branch is responsible for making and passing laws. In the United States, this branch is composed of Congress, which is divided into two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Congress has the authority to draft legislation, levy taxes, declare war, and oversee the executive and judicial branches through its powers of checks and balances.
The Articles 1 through 8 of the Constitution included various clauses that defined the powers of the Federal Government, including:
Speech and Debate Clause — Found in Article I, Section 6, this clause protects members of Congress from being prosecuted or sued for statements made and actions taken in the course of their official legislative duties.
Origination Clause — Located in Article I, Section 7, this clause stipulates that all bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of Representatives, though the Senate may propose amendments.
Presentment Clause — Found in Article I, Section 7, this clause outlines the process for how a bill becomes law.
General Welfare Clause — Located in the Preamble and Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution, this clause grants Congress the power to levy taxes and spend money to provide for the “general welfare” of the United States.
Commerce Clause — Found in Article I, Section 8, this clause empowers Congress to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among the States, and with Native American tribes.
Necessary and Proper Clause — Also known as the Elastic Clause, this is found in Article I, Section 8, and gives Congress the power to make laws deemed necessary and proper to execute its enumerated powers.
Contracts Clause — Located in Article I, Section 10, this clause prohibits States from passing laws that impair contract obligations.
Natural Born Citizen Clause — Found in Article II, Section 1, this clause specifies that only a natural-born citizen of the United States is eligible to become President.
Appointments Clause — Located in Article II, Section 2, this clause grants the President the power to nominate and, with Senate confirmation, appoint public officials, including federal judges, cabinet members, and ambassadors.
Take Care Clause — Found in Article II, Section 3, this clause requires the President to “take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed.”
Exceptions Clause — Located in Article III, Section 2, this clause grants Congress the authority to make exceptions to the Supreme Court’s appellate jurisdiction.
Full Faith and Credit Clause — Found in Article IV, Section 1, this clause requires each State to recognize and honor the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of other States.
Comity Clause — Also known as the Privileges and Immunities Clause, this clause in Article IV, Section 2 guarantees that citizens of each State are entitled to the privileges and immunities of citizens in other States.
Guarantee Clause — Located in Article IV, Section 4, this clause requires the United States to guarantee every State a Republican form of government and to protect each State against invasion and domestic violence.
Supremacy Clause — Found in Article VI, the Supremacy Clause establishes that the U.S. Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the “supreme law of the land.”
Review Video
This video from Heimler’s History provides an excellent overview of APUSH 3.9. You can also check out our APUSH Guide, which provides a look at all Units and Topics in the APUSH Curriculum.
Vocabulary and Notes
The following terms and definitions relate to the Key Concepts for Unit 3 and are broken into sections by APUSH Themes. Within the explanations of APUSH 3.9, Terms are links to content on American History Central that should provide a more comprehensive understanding of each topic. Terms and definitions are organized according to the APUSH Themes:
- American and National Identity
- Work, Exchange, and Technology
- Migration and Settlement
- Politics and Power
- America in the World
- Geography and the Environment
- Culture and Society
American and National Identity — People
John Adams
John Adams was the first Vice President and presided over the first United States Senate. He was the second President of the United States (1797–1801), a Founding Father, and an influential advocate for American independence. Before his Presidency, Adams served under George Washington and was a diplomat in Europe during the American Revolution. Adams helped secure alliances and negotiate the Treaty of Paris, which ended the war. The Adams Presidency is noted for the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts and his efforts to maintain peace with France during the Quasi-War.
James Madison
Known as the “Father of the Constitution,” James Madison was a key Founding Father, the fourth President of the United States (1809–1817), and an influential political thinker. He played a central role in drafting and promoting the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Alongside Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, Madison co-authored the Federalist Papers to advocate for ratification of the Constitution. As President, Madison led the U.S. during the War of 1812, a conflict that solidified American sovereignty. His ideas on Checks and Balances, Federalism, and Individual Rights shaped the foundation of American government and political thought.
John Marshall
Marshall, a Federalist, served as the fourth Chief Justice of the United States (1801–1835) and is credited with establishing the principles of American constitutional law. His landmark rulings, including Marbury v. Madison (1803), which established judicial review, strengthened the role of the Supreme Court as a coequal branch of government. Through decisions in cases like McCulloch v. Maryland and Gibbons v. Ogden, Marshall reinforced federal authority over states and promoted a broad interpretation of the Constitution.
Frederick Muhlenberg
Frederick Muhlenberg was an American Lutheran minister and politician who served as the first Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives in the First Congress (1789–1791). As Speaker, Muhlenberg helped establish early legislative procedures of the House. Muhlenberg was also a key figure in ratifying the Constitution in Pennsylvania.
George Washington
George Washington was the first President of the United States (1789–1797) and a Founding Father. He is known for his steady leadership during the American Revolutionary War as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. Often called the “Father of His Country,” Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787 and was unanimously elected as the first President. The Washington Presidency set precedents for the office, including the establishment of a cabinet and the tradition of serving only two terms. Washington’s Farewell Address advised against permanent alliances and political parties to maintain national stability.
American and National Identity — Groups
Federalists
Federalists were proponents of the U.S. Constitution during its creation and ratification in 1787–1788. They supported a strong Central Government, believing it necessary for national stability, economic growth, and effective governance. Federalists, including Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, argued that the Constitution balanced power among federal and state governments, protecting individual liberties while ensuring unity. They authored the Federalist Papers, a series of essays advocating for ratification and addressing concerns about potential government overreach. Federalists were instrumental in shaping the new government, and their efforts contributed to the successful adoption and ratification of the Constitution. They eventually established the Federalist Party.
Anti-Federalists
Anti-Federalists opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, fearing that a strong Central Government would infringe on States’ Rights and individual freedoms. Leaders like Patrick Henry, George Mason, and Samuel Adams argued that the Constitution lacked explicit protections for civil liberties. They favored a confederation of states with limited central authority, similar to the Articles of Confederation. Concerns from Anti-Federalists eventually led to the adoption of the Bill of Rights, the first 10 Amendments to the Constitution, which secured protections for personal freedoms and eased concerns over federal power. Anti-Federalists are often viewed as the precursor to the Democratic-Republican Party.
First Congress of the United States
The First Congress of the United States (1789–1791) convened under the new Constitution on March 4, 1789, and was essential in shaping the Federal Government’s early structure and operations. Meeting in New York City and later Philadelphia, the First Congress passed important legislation, including the Judiciary Act of 1789, establishing the federal court system, and the Tariff Act, which provided revenue. It also adopted the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the Constitution, to protect individual liberties and address Anti-Federalist concerns. The First Congress laid the foundation for the new Federal Government and established precedents.
American and National Identity — Events
Mount Vernon Conference
The Mount Vernon Conference was held in 1785 at Mount Vernon, George Washington’s estate in Virginia. Delegates from Maryland and Virginia sought to resolve navigation and trade disputes over the Potomac River and the Chesapeake Bay. The successful resolution of these issues set a precedent for addressing interstate conflicts and encouraged further efforts toward national cooperation.
Mount Vernon Compact
The Mount Vernon Compact, also known as the Compact of 1785, was the agreement reached between Maryland and Virginia during the Mount Vernon Conference. It established guidelines for the shared use of the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay. It was a significant step toward interstate collaboration.
Annapolis Convention
The Annapolis Convention, held in Annapolis, Maryland, in 1786, discussed trade and economic issues among the states. Although only five states sent delegates, the convention recommended a broader meeting to address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. This recommendation ultimately led to the Philadelphia Convention of 1787, where the U.S. Constitution was drafted.
Philadelphia Convention
The Philadelphia Convention, also known as the Constitutional Convention, took place from May to September 1787 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Originally convened to revise the Articles of Confederation, the delegates decided to draft an entirely new framework of government, resulting in the U.S. Constitution. Key figures, including George Washington, James Madison, Benjamin Franklin, and Alexander Hamilton, attended and debated the structure and powers of the federal government. Major outcomes included the establishment of a Federal System, Separation of Powers among the Three Branches of Government, and the framework for a Bicameral Legislature. The convention concluded on September 17, 1787, with the signing of the Constitution, which was then submitted to the States for ratification.
State Ratifying Conventions
State Ratifying Conventions were special assemblies convened in each of the Original 13 American states between 1787 and 1790 to debate and vote on the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. These Conventions were established to ensure that the decision to ratify the Constitution would come from representatives of the people rather than state legislatures. This process was driven by the debate between Federalists and Anti-Federalists.
Migration and Settlement
Natural Born Citizen
The Natural Born Citizen Clause, found in Article II, Section 1 of the U.S. Constitution, requires that only a “natural-born” citizen of the United States may serve as President. Although the Constitution does not define “natural born,” it has generally been interpreted to mean a person who is a U.S. citizen at birth, either by birth within U.S. territory or to U.S. citizen parents abroad. This clause was included to ensure that the President would have undivided loyalty to the United States, preventing foreign influence at the nation’s highest level of leadership. The clause has been a subject of legal interpretation and debate, especially in cases involving candidates born outside the United States to American parents.
Immigrant
An immigrant is a person who moves from one country to another with the intention of residing there permanently or for an extended period. Immigrants may seek new opportunities, better living conditions, family reunification, or refuge from conflict or persecution. In the United States, immigrants have historically played a significant role in the nation’s development, contributing to its economy, culture, and society. Immigration policies regulate who may enter, reside, and become a citizen, with processes such as visas, green cards, and naturalization providing pathways for legal immigration and integration.
Politics and Power — Building Blocks of Government
Annual Elections
Annual Elections are a system in which government officials, such as legislators, are elected by the people every year. Early American colonists favored this frequent electoral cycle to ensure greater accountability and representation of the public’s interests.
Bicameral Legislature
A Bicameral Legislature is a lawmaking body composed of two separate chambers or houses. In the United States, Congress is bicameral, consisting of the Senate (upper house) and the House of Representatives (lower house), allowing for Checks and Balances within the legislative process.
Unicameral Legislature
A Unicameral Legislature is a lawmaking body with a single legislative chamber or house. This system is simpler than a Bicameral Legislature, as all legislative authority is concentrated in one body. Nebraska is the only U.S. state with a Unicameral Legislature.
Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights refers to the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, adopted in 1791. These amendments protect fundamental rights and liberties, such as freedom of speech, religion, and the press, as well as the right to a fair trial and protection against unreasonable searches and seizures.
Chief Executive
The Chief Executive is the head of the Executive Branch of government, responsible for enforcing laws and overseeing the administration of government policies. In the United States, the President is the chief executive, holding powers such as vetoing legislation, appointing federal officials, and commanding the military.
Lower Legislative House
The Lower Legislative House is one of the chambers in a Bicameral Legislature. In the United States, the House of Representatives is the Lower House, responsible for initiating revenue bills and more directly reflecting the population’s interests. Members are elected based on population size.
Upper Legislative House
The Upper Legislative House is one of the two chambers in a Bicameral Legislature. In the United States, the Upper House is the Senate. Senators serve longer terms (six years) compared to members of the Lower House, and each state is represented equally in the Senate, with two senators per state, regardless of population size. The Senate holds special powers, such as approving treaties and confirming presidential appointments, and plays a crucial role in balancing representation between smaller and larger states.
Politics and Power — Concepts
Central Government
A Central Government is the primary authority in a country that holds supreme power over all other governmental divisions. Power is often concentrated in a single, unified structure. This type of government can make and enforce laws across the entire nation and is usually responsible for foreign policy, defense, and national economic policies. In highly centralized systems, local governments have limited autonomy and are subordinate to the central authority, which directly controls most administrative functions.
Federal Government and Federalism
A Federal Government is based on Federalism. A system of government in which power is divided between a central (federal) government and regional governments (state or provincial). In the United States, Federalism is foundational, balancing the authority of the national government with that of the states. This division of powers is enshrined in the U.S. Constitution, where some powers are shared, others are delegated to the federal government, and some are reserved to the states. Federalism allows states to exercise their own laws and policies on matters not explicitly handled by the federal government, promoting diversity and local governance within a unified nation.
Delegated Powers
Delegated powers, also known as enumerated or expressed powers, are specific authorities granted to the federal government by the U.S. Constitution. Found primarily in Article I, Section 8, these powers include regulating interstate commerce, coining money, declaring war, maintaining armed forces, and establishing a postal system. Delegated powers define the scope of federal authority and enable the national government to address issues that impact the country as a whole.
Checks and Balances
Checks and Balances is a foundational principle in the U.S. Constitution that ensures power is divided among the three branches of government — Executive, Legislative, and Judicial — allowing each branch to limit the powers of the others. This system prevents any single branch from becoming too powerful. For example, Congress (legislative) makes laws, but the President (executive) can veto them, and the Supreme Court (judicial) can declare them unconstitutional. Similarly, while the President appoints federal judges, the Senate must confirm these appointments. The system of Checks and Balances helps promote accountability and stability in government by maintaining a balance of power.
Separation of Powers
Separation of Powers is a foundational principle in which the government’s power is divided among distinct branches (Legislative, Executive, and Judicial), each with specific responsibilities. This system is designed to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful by allowing Checks and Balances.
Reserved Powers
Reserved powers are those not explicitly delegated to the federal government nor prohibited to the States and are reserved to the States under the Tenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Examples of reserved powers include regulating intrastate commerce, establishing local governments, conducting elections, and overseeing public health and education. Reserved Powers allow States to govern local matters according to their specific needs and priorities, maintaining a balance of authority within the Federal System.
Politics and Power — Key Clauses Found in Articles 1 Through 8
Three-Fifths Clause
The Three-Fifths Clause, found in Article I, Section 2 of the U.S. Constitution, established that each enslaved person would be counted as three-fifths of a person for purposes of representation and taxation. Southern states, with larger enslaved populations, sought to count enslaved individuals fully to gain more representation in the House of Representatives, while Northern states opposed this. The Three-Fifths Clause increased Southern political influence in Congress without fully recognizing the rights of enslaved people, and it remained in effect until the Civil War and the ratification of the 13th Amendment, which abolished slavery.
Speech and Debate Clause
The Speech and Debate Clause, found in Article I, Section 6 of the U.S. Constitution, protects members of Congress from being prosecuted or sued for statements made and actions taken in the course of their official legislative duties. This clause ensures legislative independence by allowing members to speak freely, debate, and conduct business without fear of interference or intimidation from the executive branch or the judiciary. It also reinforces the separation of powers by preventing other branches from holding legislators accountable for their legislative actions outside Congress.
Origination Clause
The Origination Clause, located in Article I, Section 7 of the U.S. Constitution, stipulates that all bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of Representatives, though the Senate may propose amendments. This clause was intended to ensure that the power to tax and spend would be held by the legislative chamber most directly accountable to the people, given that House members face more frequent elections. The Origination Clause reinforces the principle of “no taxation without representation” by placing revenue-related legislation in the hands of the elected representatives.
Presentment Clause
The Presentment Clause, also found in Article I, Section 7 of the U.S. Constitution, outlines the process for how a bill becomes law. Once both the House and Senate pass a bill, it must be presented to the President, who can either sign it into law, veto it, or allow it to become law without signing (if left unsigned for ten days while Congress is in session). If the President vetoes the bill, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds majority in both chambers. This clause establishes a system of checks and balances between the legislative and executive branches in the lawmaking process.
General Welfare Clause
The General Welfare Clause, found in the Preamble and Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution, grants Congress the power to levy taxes and spend money to provide for the “general welfare” of the United States. This clause allows Congress to fund programs and initiatives that benefit the nation as a whole, though debates have arisen over its interpretation and the scope of congressional spending.
Commerce Clause
The Commerce Clause, located in Article I, Section 8, empowers Congress to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among the states, and with Native American tribes. This clause has been the basis for broad federal regulatory powers, enabling Congress to address issues like interstate trade, labor laws, and economic policies.
Necessary and Proper Clause
The Necessary and Proper Clause, also known as the Elastic Clause, is found in Article I, Section 8, and gives Congress the power to make laws deemed necessary and proper to execute its enumerated powers. This clause provides flexibility in lawmaking, allowing Congress to adapt its legislative powers to the needs of a changing nation.
Contracts Clause
Located in Article I, Section 10, the Contracts Clause prohibits states from passing laws that impair contract obligations. This clause protects economic stability and individual rights by ensuring that private agreements and obligations are legally enforceable, limiting State interference in private contracts.
Natural Born Citizen Clause
The Natural Born Citizen Clause, in Article II, Section 1, specifies that only a natural-born citizen of the United States is eligible to become President. This clause was included to ensure that the Commander in Chief would have undivided loyalty to the U.S., though its exact definition has been subject to legal debate.
Appointments Clause
The Appointments Clause, in Article II, Section 2, grants the President the power to nominate and, with Senate confirmation, appoint public officials, including federal judges, cabinet members, and ambassadors. This clause ensures that high-level government appointments are subject to Senate oversight, balancing executive power.
Take Care Clause
Found in Article II, Section 3, the Take Care Clause requires the President to “take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed.” This clause establishes the President’s duty to enforce and administer federal laws and prevents the executive from neglecting or selectively applying laws passed by Congress.
Exceptions Clause
The Exceptions Clause, located in Article III, Section 2, grants Congress the authority to make exceptions to the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. This clause gives Congress some control over which cases the Supreme Court may hear on appeal, though it has been sparingly used.
Full Faith and Credit Clause
The Full Faith and Credit Clause, in Article IV, Section 1, requires each state to recognize and honor the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of other states. This clause promotes unity and legal consistency across state lines, ensuring that legal judgments and civil statutes are respected nationwide.
Comity Clause
Also known as the Privileges and Immunities Clause, the Comity Clause in Article IV, Section 2, guarantees that citizens of each state are entitled to the privileges and immunities of citizens in other states. It ensures equal treatment for citizens across states, promoting interstate harmony and discouraging discrimination against nonresidents.
Fugitive Slave Clause
The Fugitive Slave Clause, located in Article IV, Section 2 of the U.S. Constitution, required that enslaved people who escaped to free states be returned to their enslavers upon claim. This clause was a concession to Southern states to protect their property interests in enslaved people. It obligated Northern states to cooperate in the capture and return of escaped slaves, creating tension between free and slave states. The Fugitive Slave Clause was reinforced by the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 and strengthened further by the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. The clause remained a source of sectional conflict until the Civil War and the 13th Amendment.
Guarantee Clause
The Guarantee Clause, located in Article IV, Section 4, obliges the United States to guarantee every state a republican form of government and to protect each state against invasion and domestic violence. This clause ensures that all states maintain representative governments and that the federal government will assist in emergencies.
Supremacy Clause
Found in Article VI, the Supremacy Clause establishes that the U.S. Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the “supreme law of the land.” It mandates that federal law takes precedence over state law when the two conflict, ensuring that the federal government’s authority is paramount in legal disputes.
Culture and Society — Slavery
Abolition Movement
The Abolition Movement was a social and political campaign aimed at ending slavery and the Slave Trade, particularly in the United States and Britain, during the 18th and 19th Centuries. In the U.S., abolitionists like Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, and William Lloyd Garrison fought to end the institution of slavery, which culminated in the Civil War and the passage of the 13th Amendment in 1865, abolishing slavery. The movement was characterized by moral, religious, and political arguments against the practice, and it played a significant role in advancing civil rights and equality in the U.S.
Black Codes and Slave Laws
Black Codes and Slave Laws existed in the colonies and territories before the establishment of the United States. These continued to be enforced even after the United States gained independence. In 1804, Ohio became the first state legislature to enact laws that restricted the rights and freedoms of blacks. Some of these laws remained in effect until 1886 — more than 20 years after the Civil War.
Fugitive Slave Laws
The Fugitive Slave Laws were a series of laws enacted in the United States to address the issue of escaped slaves. The first Fugitive Slave Law (1793) allowed slaveowners to capture escaped slaves across state lines and required that states cooperate in their return. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, part of the Compromise of 1850, strengthened the law by requiring the Free States to assist in the capture and return of runaway slaves. It also imposed penalties on those who aided fugitives. The harshness of the 1850 law intensified the Sectional Divide over slavery and fueled the Abolitionist Movement, ultimately leading to the outbreak of the Civil War.
Pennsylvania Abolition Society
The Pennsylvania Abolition Society, also known as the “Philadelphia Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage,” was founded in 1775 in Philadelphia and was the first American organization dedicated to the abolition of slavery. Under the leadership of people such as Benjamin Franklin and Benjamin Rush, the Society worked to end slavery in Pennsylvania. The Society contributed to Pennsylvania’s 1780 Gradual Abolition Act, one of the first legislative measures that started the process of ending slavery in the U.S.
Tacit Approval of Slavery
Tacit Approval of Slavery refers to the implicit allowance of the institution of slavery by individuals, governments, or societies without explicitly saying so. In the early United States, this was reflected in the Constitution, which included the Three-Fifths Compromise and the Fugitive Slave Clause. Many Northern States, while not reliant on slavery, often tolerated it due to economic ties and a desire to maintain the Union.
Unit 3 Topics and Key Concepts
Key Concepts
3.1 — British attempts to assert tighter control over its North American colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self-government led to a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War.
3.2 — The American Revolution’s democratic and republican ideas inspired new experiments with different forms of government.
3.3 — Migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries, and trade intensified conflicts among peoples and nations.
Topics
- 3.1 — Contextualizing Period 3
- 3.2 — The Seven Years’ War (The French and Indian War)
- 3.3 — Taxation Without Representation
- 3.4 — Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution
- 3.5 — The American Revolution
- 3.6 — The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals
- 3.7 — The Articles of Confederation
- 3.8 — The Constitutional Convention and Debates over Ratification
- 3.9 — The Constitution
- 3.10 — Shaping a New Republic
- 3.11 — Developing an American Identity
- 3.12 — Movement in the Early Republic
- 3.13 — Continuity and Change in Period 3
