Battle of the Clouds

Essential Facts

• Also Known As: Battle of White Horse Tavern, Action at White Horse Tavern.
• Date: September 16, 1777.
• Location: Near present-day Planebrook and Malvern, Pennsylvania.
• Participants: United States of America and Great Britain.
• Key American Leaders: George Washington, Anthony Wayne, William Maxwell, James Potter.
• Key British Leaders: William Howe, Charles Cornwallis, Wilhelm von Knyphausen, Carol von Donop, Johann Ewald.
• Who Won: Britain won the Battle of the Clouds.
• Part of: Philadelphia Campaign, American Revolutionary War.
• Significance: The Battle of the Clouds is important to American History because it was part of the Philadelphia Campaign. However, it had very little effect on the outcome of the campaign, other than delaying the British capture of Philadelphia.

Key Details

• Although the battle was fought near White Horse Tavern, it was called the “Battle of the Clouds” because of the violent thunderstorm that ended the fighting.
• Most of the action took place on the south side of Chester Valley (also known as Great Valley), along the roads leading north toward the Lancaster Road..
• According to most accounts of the battle, Washington’s Army would have been defeated due to the attack on its right flank, as Washington was trying to organize his troops.

History

The Philadelphia Campaign

• General William Howe carried out the Philadelphia Campaign to capture Philadelphia, the nation’s capital, and to destroy General George Washington’s Army.
• Howe used the British Navy to move his army from New York City to the head of the Elk River in Delaware. To make his way to Philadelphia, he needed to cross Brandywine Creek and the Schuylkill River.
• After a brief engagement at the Battle of Cooch’s Bridge, Washington placed his army along the banks of Brandywine Creek, southwest of Philadelphia.
• On September 11, Howe attacked Washington in the Battle of Brandywine, the largest, longest, one-day battle of the war. Washington was forced to withdraw, but his men fought hard and the army remained intact, ready to fight again.
• Afterward, Howe’s Army was on the east side of Brandywine Creek, southwest of Philadelphia. The next geographic obstacle in its path to Philadelphia was the Schuylkill River.
• The most viable crossing was at Swede’s Ford at Norristown, roughly 20 miles northeast of Philadelphia.
• Washington moved his army to block the roads to Swede’s Ford, leading to the engagement on September 16, 1777.

Washington Blocks the Schuylkill River

Following the Battle of Brandywine (September 11, 1777), General George Washington retreated to Chester, then marched through Philadelphia, finally making his way to the Falls of Schuylkill, near Germantown. From this position, he was able to:

• Block the routes to the crossings Schuylkill River.
• Defend storehouses and forges northwest of Germantown, at Valley Forge, Warren Furnace, and Reading Furnace, where Patriots were manufacturing muskets, gunpowder, cannons, and other supplies for the Continental Army.

Washington issued orders to have the bridge crossed over the Schuylkill at Middle Ferry (also called Middle Bridge) removed to eliminate one of Howe’s potential routes to Philadelphia. In the absence of this bridge, Howe would need to march northwest to Norristown and cross at Swede’s Ford.

• Washington sent General John Armstrong Sr. and his Pennsylvania Militia to Norristown to build defensive works and defend Swede’s Ford. He sent a French officer, Colonel Louis Duportail, with Armstrong to oversee the design and construction.
• Washington instructed General Alexander McDougall, who was in the Hudson River Valley, to march to New Jersey to reinforce Philemon Dickinson and the New Jersey Militia.
• He sent orders to General William Smallwood, who was gathering the Maryland Militia, to bring whatever men he had and to join him as soon as possible. He also instructed him to harass the British if the opportunity presented itself.
  • Smallwood only had 1,400 men, less than Washington had hoped for.
  • Many of them were untrained and inexperienced.
  • Smallwood warned Washington that they might not be of much use to him, explaining that Washington was, “…too well acquainted with Militia to place much Dependence in them when opposed to regular and veteran Troops, without Regular Forces to support them.”

AHC Notes

• Although the Americans were defeated at Brandywine, Washington was encouraged by the effort of his troops. This led him to seek another battle with Howe’s Army.
• Although Swede’s Ford was 20 miles from Philadelphia, it was the nearest place that troops could cross without boats.
• The Americans had removed all boats from the south side of the Schuylkill River, so the British had to find a place they could walk across — even if it was through chest-high water.
• Washington received permission from Howe to send American doctors to tend to the wounded American prisoners. Benjamin Rush was one of the doctors Washington sent.

Howe Delays His Pursuit

Howe did not pursue Washington right away. He remained at Dilworthtown, where he focused on establishing a hospital and supply base at Wilmington, Delaware, and sent portions of his army out to scout Washington’s movements.

• AHC Note — Wilmington was on the Delaware River, southwest of Philadelphia.

On the 12th, Howe sent General James Grant to the Concord Meeting House, two miles east. The next day, he sent General Charles Cornwallis in that direction. He joined Grant at Concord Meeting House, took command of both forces, and then marched further east, where he established camps at Village Green (also known as “Seven Stars”) and Aston. 

• Howe sent them eastward, thinking Washington was still at Chester.
• By the time Cornwallis arrived at Village Green, Washington had already moved northeast.

On September 13, 1777, the 71st Regiment took control of Wilmington and took the state’s Governor, John McKinly, as a prisoner.

• Sick and wounded British soldiers and Hessian soldiers started arriving at Wilmington on September 14.
• Howe kept the larger part of the army with him around Dilworthtown, but sent reinforcements to Wilmington on September 16.

AHC Note — Despite the delay, the main goal of Howe’s Philadelphia Campaign remained the same — to capture Philadelphia and occupy the city. At this point, he had to succeed, because it was too late for him to return to New York and help General John Burgoyne with his campaign in the Hudson River Valley. However, as long as Washington’s Army existed, it was a threat to Howe and would allow the war to continue.

September 14

On the morning of September 14, Washington’s Army left the camp at the Falls of the Schuylkill and marched down to Levering’s Ford, at present-day Green Lane in Manayunk, where it crossed the Schuylkill River. 

• From there, it took the Lancaster Road northwest, toward Haverford, where it stopped for the night.
• The order of the American column was: Major General John Sullivan, Major General William Alexander, Major General Anthony Wayne, Brigadier General Francis Nash, Major General Adam Stephen, and Major General Nathanael Greene.

September 15

The next morning, September 15, Washington continued his march westward, moving 14 miles to the Chester Valley, where he deployed his troops along the Lancaster Road between Paoli Tavern (east) and Thomas’s Mill (west). The center of this line was between Warren Tavern (east) and White Horse Tavern (west).

Washington wrote a letter to John Hancock, the President of Congress, explaining the move: “We are moving up this Road to get in between the Enemy and the Swedes Ford and to prevent them from turning our right flank…”

AHC Notes

• Thomas’s Mill was on the property of Colonel Richard Thomas, a member of the Chester County Militia.
• Warren Tavern was in present-day Malvern, Pennsylvania.
• White Horse Tavern, roughly three miles west, was located in present-day Planebrook, Pennsylvania, at White House Crossroads.
• At White House Crossroads, six roads met, including Lancaster Road. The Crossroads was about a mile west of Swede’s Ford.
• North of the taverns was North Valley Hill, overlooking the Lancaster Road (present-day State Route 30), which passes through the Cherry Valley.
• On the south side of the Lancaster Road was South Valley Hill.
• The skies were cloudy and threatening due to a massive storm system moving in from the coast.

Washington established his headquarters at the home of Randal Malin, whose estate was known as “Malin Hall.” This was one mile west of Warren Tavern. While he was there, Washington dealt with the fallout from his defeat at Brandywine Creek.

• Congress sent a letter, recalling General John Sullivan for questioning regarding his conduct at Staten Island and Brandywine. However, Sullivan protested and remained with the army.
• General Preudhomme de Borre was suspended from duty for his actions at Brandywine.

Regarding Sullivan, Washington told Congress, “…respecting General Sullivan, I must beg to defer giving any order about it. Our situation at this time is critical and delicate; and nothing should be done to add to its embarrassments. The Maryland troops, if General Sullivan is taken away, will not have one general officer, General Smallwood being at the head of the militia coming from the state…”

Washington also took measures to correct some of the failures that created problems during the Battle of Brandywine:

• Casimir Pulaski, a Polish officer, was given command of the army’s cavalry.
• An order was issued, instructing his officers to execute anyone “who turns his back on the enemy, and attempts to run away, or to retreat before orders are given for it…”

Skirmish Near Aston

On the 15th, Washington sent an expedition, led by Colonel Henry Arendt and Captain Enoch Anderson, out to scout the British forces near Aston. Sometime before noon, Arendt and his men were engaged in a brief skirmish with units from Cornwallis’s command, but were able to escape. They camped that night somewhere near Chester.

Philadelphia Vulnerable

The position of Washington’s Army gave it access to the main roads in the area, allowing it to block Howe’s access to Swede’s Ford. However, the location was so far to the west that it exposed Philadelphia to any attack that might come via the Delaware River.

• Washington sent General Phillipe du Coudray, a French officer, to oversee the construction of fortifications downriver from Philadelphia.
• A small fleet of American ships was operating on the river, including the Delaware, under the command of Captain Charles Alexander.

Howe Resumes Operations

Howe received criticism from some of his junior officers for failing to pursue Washington right away. However, his aide-de-camp, Captain Friedrich von Muenchhausen, said:

“…people are dwelling on the fact that our General does not quickly follow Washington with his whole force…Of course this would be a good thing if it were possible, but it is definitely not, because the General first has to send away the sick and wounded on the wagons, which carry our provisions and baggage. It is not possible to procure enough wagons here to do both at the same time…”

By this time, Howe was prepared to resume his pursuit of Washington’s Army. He went to Village Green on the 15th and met with Cornwallis. While he was there, intelligence arrived that Washington had crossed the Schuylkill and marched to Cherry Valley. Howe and Cornwallis believed Washington was vulnerable and decided to mobilize their forces and attack.

• Cornwallis would march northwest from Village Tavern, about 20 miles, and approach the Americans from the east.
• Howe and Knyphausen would march from Dilworthtown, northward for about 15 miles to Washington’s position and approach the Americans from the west.
• They would join their forces at the Goshen Meeting House, march northwest, and attack Washington.

AHC Note

• On the morning of the 15th, there was a skirmish that led to the capture of some American soldiers. They told the British that Washington had crossed the Schuylkill and was moving westward toward Swede’s Ford. This is possibly the skirmish that took place with Arent’s men near Aston.
• While Howe was at Cornwallis’s camp, he had two British soldiers publicly hanged for violating his order against plundering.
• To speed up his march, Howe paroled wounded American prisoners and sent them to present-day West Chester, about 10 miles north. Benjamin Rush went with them.
• Rain fell across the region for most of the day.

September 16

At midnight on September 16, Cornwallis left Village Tavern, marching northwest on Chester Road, toward Goshen Meeting House. Around 5:00 a.m., Howe and Knyphausen marched out of Dilworthtown on the Wilmington Road and sent Hessians ahead to scout the American positions.

• The roads were already wet and soft from the rain, slowing the march.
• The region Cornwallis marched through was known as “The Barrens,” and was reportedly so dark at times that he had to pause his march.
• More rain fell as the British marched toward Goshen.

American scouting parties, including Arendt’s, shadowed the movements of the British forces as they advanced toward the Chester Valley.

Washington Deploys Wayne and Maxwell

Around 9:00 a.m., Washington was informed that the British were advancing. He met with his officers, and they agreed to form a defensive line along the ridge on South Valley Hill. Next, he sent advance forces out to engage and delay the British.

• East — General Anthony Wayne, with his two brigades of Continentals (1st and 2nd Pennsylvania) and Pennsylvania Militia units, was positioned between White Horse Tavern and Warren Tavern. Some of the militia moved up South Valley Hill and were about a mile and a half north of Goshen Meeting House.
• West — General William Maxwell and his light infantry, known as Maxwell’s Brigade, and General James Potter and his Pennsylvania Militia, were near Thomas’s Mill, north of Boot Tavern, which sat at the crossroads of Boot Road and Ship Road.

Skirmish at Turk’s Head Tavern

Howe’s advance forces were near Turk’s Head Tavern, at the crossroads of Wilmington Road and Strasburg Road. around 10:15 a.m., when American scouts fired on them.

• The Americans fled after firing their shots.
• Howe and Knyphausen went east, turned up Boot Road (present-day Phoenixville Pike), and marched slightly northeast to Chester Road, where Goshen Meeting House was located.
• Howe sent General Edward Mathew up Wilmington Road (present-day Pottstown Pike), toward Thomas’s Mill, in pursuit of the fleeing Americans.

Howe proceeded to Goshen, where he joined Cornwallis. However, they had to wait another three hours for all troops and wagons to arrive before they could move ahead and launch their attack on Washington.

• Cornwallis continued northward on Chester Road, marching toward Wayne.
• Howe and Knyphausen marched northward on Boot Road, parallel to Cornwallis, toward Potter and Maxwell.
• Mathew continued up the Wilmington Road, moving toward the right flank of Maxwell.

AHC Notes

• Various accounts indicate that Pulaski led cavalry as part of the American advance forces and engaged the British. Further, some say it was Pulaski who warned Washington that the British were at the Goshen Meeting House.
• General Phillipe du Coudray and some of his men were crossing the Delaware River on a ferry when du Coudray’s horse panicked and jumped into the river. Du Coudray drowned.

Cornwallis Engages Wayne

Before Howe arrived at Goshen, Cornwallis sent infantry up Chester Road, where they came into contact with about 300 of Wayne’s Pennsylvania militiamen between 1:00 and 2:00.

• Wayne had sent them ahead to scout the oncoming British forces.
• The militiamen took a position on the heights behind a mill
• The British fired on them and rushed to attack.
• The militiamen suffered casualties and fled from the heights.
• According to Timothy Pickering, the militia “…shamefully fled at the first fire.

Donop’s Narrow Escape

Around 2:00, Colonel Carl von Donop led a scouting party ahead of Knyphausen’s column, toward Maxwell and Potter.

• Donop went too far ahead of the main column.
• This allowed Potter’s men to move in behind him near Boot Tavern.
• Donop quickly turned around and rejoined Knyphausen’s column.
• Potter’s men suffered casualties and fled.
• This exposed the west side (or right) of Washington’s Army to an attack from Knyphausen, and could have allowed Mathew to march behind it and attack from the rear.

Friedrich von Muenchhausen said: “About two o’clock in the afternoon, in the region called The-Boot-Sign, our vanguard, consisting of the Hessian jagers…encountered about 1500 rebels, being the vanguard of Washington’s army…The Hessian grenadiers and Hessian Leib Regiment were put in line on a height. But the rebels retreated, and there was only some skirmishing with the jagers, who were in the van of our column. Colonel von Donop, who had advanced a little too impetuously with a company of jagers and 40 mounted jagers, was almost surrounded and only narrowly escaped capture.”

Another Hessian officer, Captain Johann Ewald, said: “The advance guard had hardly arrived at the Boot Tavern when they learned that an enemy corps of two to three thousand men had appeared on the left flank of the army. After receiving this information, Colonel Donop immediately took the advanced guard of the jagers under Captain Wreden and the mounted jagers under Captain Lorey to reconnoiter the enemy…The colonel pursued them too far, through which mistake an enemy party passed between him and the army and cut off his retreat…Captain Lorey decided to break through with the horsemen…notwithstanding that the enemy had posted himself very favorably behind walls and fences and kept up a sustained rifle fire. This was successful and the colonel got off with his skin.” Ewald was also critical of Donop for allowing himself to fall into the American trap, saying, “We all laughed secretly over this partisan trick.”

Washington Falls Back

With hostilities underway, three columns of British troops approaching, and his line in disarray, Washington met with his officers. Timothy Pickering insisted that a decision needed to be made because the British were advancing. They discussed two options:

1. They could form a defensive line along Lancaster Road, between the two taverns, and wait for the British to attack them along the floor of the Chester Valley.
2. They could fall back to the high ground (North Valley Hill) behind the taverns and northwest of the road.

By this time, the rain was increasing, and the roads that would serve as their escape routes were turning to mud.

• Washington decided to move the army to the high ground, which was two miles away.
• They formed a line on the slope running from the Lancaster Road up toward North Valley Hill.
• He sent orders to Brigadier General Charles Scott to take his Virginia Continentals and attack Cornwallis, but the rain made it impossible.

Ewald’s Attack

Around 5:00, Knyphausen ordered Ewald to advance and attack Potter’s men. At about this time, the heavy rains increased to the point that there was almost no visibility in some areas.

• Within minutes, everything was wet, and the roads had turned to mud, becoming nearly impassable.
• Ewald and his men used swords because their guns and powder were wet.
• They took more than 30 Americans as prisoners.

Ewald said: “I believe that it was about five o’clock in the afternoon, an extraordinary thunderstorm occurred, combined with the heaviest downpour in this world. The army halted. On the left was a thick wood, from which our flank patrols had been dislodged by the enemy. General Knyphausen, who arrived at my company on horseback, ordered me to attack the people in the wood…I had to cross open ground for several hundred paces…exposed to enemy fire, which did not seem to be very heavy, since most of the rifles did not fire owing to the heavy rain…I ordered the hunting swords to be drawn. I reached the wood at top speed and came to close quarters with the enemy, who during the furious attack forgot that he had bayonets and quit the field, whereby the jagers captured four officers and some thirty men. The entire loss of the Jager Corps in this fight consisted of five killed, seven wounded, and three missing.”

Cornwallis halted his advance as heavy rains fell over the area for several hours.  Washington completed the withdrawal to the heights and waited for the British to attack.

• During the delay, the Americans discovered that their ammunition was wet due to defective cartridge boxes, making it impossible to fire with their muskets.
• General Henry Knox reported a loss of 400,000 rounds of ammunition and said, “This was a most terrible stroke to us, and owing entirely to the badness of the cartridge-boxes which had been provided for the army.”

Aftermath

As the rain continued, Washington decided to withdraw. He moved the army back to the bottom of the valley and then marched through the northern end of the valley to Yellow Springs (present-day Chester Springs), arriving there that night. 

The army moved slowly, and the march took as long as 14 hours for some of the troops. The lead elements of the army arrived around 10:00 p.m. and established their camps. The rest of the army followed, and all troops arrived by the next morning.

• The rain finally ended later in the morning of September 17, 1777.
• Washington waited for all of the divisions and brigades to arrive before moving out again. 
• He sent Maxwell to protect them, in case they were attacked.
• Washington wrote: “Upon examining the State of our Ammunition, I find it so generally hurt by the Rain, that we are not in Condition to make a stand against the Enemy.”

The British remained in the Chester Valley for the night. Ewald said: “The army encamped in the vicinity of Boot Tavern…This terrible rain caused the roads to become so bottomless that not one wagon, much less a gun, could get through.”

• Howe established his headquarters at Boot Tavern.
• Most of his troops were without tents, because Howe had ordered them to leave them behind when they made the march to the Brandywine.

In the days that followed, the two armies continued to change positions. Howe slowly moved toward Philadelphia, while Washington found dry ammunition and resupplied his army. 

• Washington left Wayne at Yellow Springs with instructions to harass Howe’s army, if possible, but to avoid a general engagement.
• Wayne moved his troops behind Howe’s Army, first to Paoli Tavern and then closer to Warren Tavern.
• At this position, Wayne thought he was hidden, but the British discovered him, setting up an attack on the night of September 20–21, known as the “Paoli Massacre.”

Appendix

Timothy Pickering’s Account

Timothy Pickering’s account of the Battle of the Clouds is taken from A History of Chester County, Pennsylvania by Charles W. Heathcote (1932). Please note that minor text corrections and adjustments to spacing have been made to enhance readability.

On the 11th of September, 1777, the Battle of Brandywine took place. After carrying Gen. Washington’s orders to a general officer at Chadd’s Ford, I repaired to the right, where the battle commenced, and remained by the general’s side to its termination at the close of the day. 

Orders were given for the troops to rendezvous at Chester, whence they marched the next day to the neighborhood of Philadelphia. When refreshed and supplied with ammunition, the army again crossed the Schuylkill River and advanced to meet General Howe. 

On the 16th of September, in the morning, information was received of the approach of the enemy. Some detachments were made to reinforce the advanced guards and keep the enemy in check until the American army should be arrayed for action. General Washington ordered me to the right wing, to aid in forming the order of battle. 

On my return to the centre, I found the line not formed. Seeing the commander-in-chief with a number of officers about him, as in consultation, I pressed my horse up to learn the object. 

It was a question whether we should receive the British on the ground then occupied by our troops, or retire beyond a valley in their rear, in which the ground was said to be wet, and impassable with artillery, which, in case of a defeat would, of course, be lost; excepting that with the left wings commanded by Gen. Greene, through which there was a firm road. 

By this time, the fire of the troops engaged appeared to be drawing near. At this movement, the consultation yet continuing, I addressed Gen. Washington. “Sir, the advancing of the British is manifest by the reports of the musketry. The order of battle is not completed. If we are to fight the enemy on this ground, the troops ought to be immediately arranged. If we are to take the high grounds on the other side of the valley, we ought to march immediately, or the enemy may fall upon us in the midst of our movement.” 

“Let us move,” was the General’s answer. The movement took place. It had begun to rain. The British army halted. Ours formed on the high ground beyond the valley, and there remained during a very rainy day.

Henry Knox’s Account

On September 24, 1777, Colonel Henry Knox wrote the following letter to his wife, Lucy. This is included in The Spirit of Seventy-Six (1983), edited by Harold Steele Commager and Richard B. Morris. Please note that minor text corrections and spacing have been added to improve readability. 

I wrote you on the 13th. The same day we crossed the Schuylkill, in order to try the issue of another appeal to Him who directs all human events. After some days’ manoeuvring, we came in sight of the enemy, and drew up in order of battle, which the enemy declined; but a most violent rain coming on obliged us to change our position, in the course of which nearly all the musket cartridges of the army that had been delivered to the men were damaged, consisting of about 400,000. This was a most terrible stroke to us, and owing entirely to the badness of the cartouch-boxes which had been provided for the army.

This unfortunate event obliged us to retire, in order to get supplied with so essential an article as cartridges, after which we forded the Schuylkill, in order to be opposite to the enemy; accordingly, we took post at a place called Flatland Ford.

A defensive war is the most difficult to guard against, because one is always obliged to attend to the feints of the enemy. To defend an extensive river when it is unfordable is almost impossible; but when fordable in every part, it becomes impracticable. 

On the afternoon of the 21st, the enemy made a most rapid march of ten or twelve miles to our right; this obliged us to follow them. They kindled large fires, and in the next night marched as rapidly back and crossed at a place where we had few guards, and pushed towards Philadelphia, and will this morning enter the city without opposition. 

We fought one battle for it, and it was no deficiency in bravery that lost us the day. Philadelphia, it seems, has been their favorite object. Their shipping has not joined them there. They will first have to raise the chevaux de frise in the Delaware, and defeat the naval force there, which is considerable.

The troops in this excursion of ten days without baggage suffered excessive hardships — without tents in the rain, several marches of all night, and often without sufficient provision. This they endured with the perseverance and patience of good soldiers. 

Generals Smallwood, Wayne, McDougall, and a considerable body of militia will join us today and tomorrow. This day we shall move towards Philadelphia, in order to try the fortune of another battle, in which we devoutly hope the blessing of Heaven. 

I consider the loss of Philadelphia as only temporary — to be recovered when expedient. It is no more than the loss of Boston, nor, in my opinion, half so much, when the present trade of the latter be considered. 

It is situated on a point of land formed by the rivers Delaware and Schuylkill, so that it would [have] been highly improper to have thrown ourselves into it.

If the enemy do not get their shipping up soon, and go into Philadelphia, they will be in a very ineligible situation. I do not, in the present circumstances, consider Philadelphia of so much consequence as the loss of reputation to our arms; but I trust in God we shall soon make up that matter. Billy is well and undergoes the hardships of the campaign surprisingly well, and they are neither few nor small.

Bibliography and Suggested Reading

• Commager, Henry Steele, and Morris, Richard B. The Spirit of ‘Seventy-Six. 2002.
• Drury, Bob, and Clavin, Tom. Valley Forge. 2018.
• Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Ryerson, Richard A. The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War, Volume 4. 2006.
• Greene, Francis Vinton. The Revolutionary War and the Military Policy of the United States. 1911.
• Harris, Michael C. Brandywine: A Military History of the Battle that Lost Philadelphia but Saved America, September 11, 1777. 2014.
• Harris, Michael C. Germantown: A Military History of the Battle for Philadelphia, October 4, 1777. 2020.
• McGuire, Thomas J. Battle of Paoli. 2000.
• Selesky, Harold E., Encyclopedia of the American Revolution, Second Edition.
• Taffe, Stephen R. The Philadelphia Campaign 1777–1778. 2003.
• Ward, Christopher. The War of the Revolution. 2012.