British Southern Strategy

Essential Facts

• Date: 1778–October 1781.
• Locations: Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia.
• Part of: American Revolutionary War.

Key Details

• The Southern Strategy was a plan the British used during the Revolutionary War.
• The British used it to focus their armies in Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia.
• The British did not fully embrace the Southern Strategy until France became America’s ally, following the Battles of Saratoga and the Battle of Germantown.
• The British Secretary of State for the American Department, Lord George Germain, chose to use the Southern Strategy after France entered the war in February 1778.
• The Strategy relied on the belief that many Southern Loyalists supported the British, which turned out to be false.
• American forces won key battles at Cowpens and Kings Mountain, which turned the tide of the war in the Southern Theater.
• General Nathanael Greene led his army into the Carolinas and fought a war of attrition against General Charles Cornwallis. As Cornwallis pursued Greene, he used up supplies and resources and lost men who could not be easily replaced.
• British forces invaded Virginia in 1781 and carried out raids.
• Following the Battle of Guilford Courthouse, Cornwallis slowly made his way to Yorktown, Virginia.
• Once he was there, Allied forces marched and sailed to the Chesapeake Bay, where they laid siege to Yorktown, eventually forcing Cornwallis to surrender.

Significance

The British Southern Strategy is important to American History because it culminated in the British surrender at Yorktown, which ended the major fighting in the American Revolutionary War. British officials were forced to negotiate the Treaty of Paris (1783), which recognized the United States as an independent nation, finally separate from Great Britain.

History

Following the British surrender at Saratoga and General George Washington’s bold attack on General William Howe’s forces at Germantown, French officials were convinced the United States could win the war, and agreed to form an economic and military alliance with the fledgling nation (see Franco-American Alliance). 

Although the British had captured the American capital, Philadelphia, in September 1777, the threat of a French attack on New York City led British officials to redefine their war strategy. Known as the “British Southern Strategy,” it was designed to use military force to reestablish control of the colonies most valuable to the Empire, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, maintain control of Canada and New York City, and isolate New England.

The British intended to take Savannah, Georgia, move northeast to Charleston, South Carolina, and work their way northward until they controlled the Chesapeake Bay, where they could establish a naval base.

The strategy relied heavily on the belief that there was significant Loyalist support in the Southern Colonies. Lord George Germain, the Secretary of State for the American Department, fully expected Loyalists would respond to the presence of British forces by taking up arms and joining the war effort. According to General Henry Clinton, the goal “was to support the Loyalists and restore the authority of the King’s government.”

In June 1778, General Henry Clinton led his army out of Philadelphia and marched northward toward New York City. General Washington and his newly-trained soldiers emerged from Valley Forge, hoping to strike a decisive blow against Clinton’s Army. On June 28, Washington attacked near Monmouth Court House, and the two armies fought through intense heat until nightfall, when they retired to their camps. While Washington intended to resume the battle the next day, Clinton did not, and he completed his march to New York City. Washington followed and moved his army into New Jersey. 

At this point, the war in the Northern Theater arrived at a stalemate, and Clinton set the Southern Strategy in motion by sending Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell and 3,100 men from New York to Savannah to capture the city. Meanwhile, a second British expedition, led by General Augustine Prevost, marched out of St. Augustine, in the British Colony of East Florida, toward Savannah.

Over the next three-and-a-half years, British and American forces clashed for control of East Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolin, and Virginia. The British held the upper hand from 1778 until October 1780, when American militia forces known as the Overmountain Men crushed British forces at the Battle of Kings Mountain. 

Starting in January 1781, American forces led by Nathanael Greene waged a war of attrition against British forces under General Charles Cornwallis, culminating in the Battle of Guilford Court House near Greensboro, North Carolina. Although the British won the battle, they suffered heavy casualties and were forced to withdraw, first to Wilmington, North Carolina, and finally to Yorktown, Virginia.

In the decisive campaign of the war, American and French commanders coordinated their land and naval forces and converged on Virginia. In September, French and British fleets fought in the Battle of the Chesapeake. The French won, securing control of the Chesapeake Bay and ending any hopes Cornwallis had of escaping by sea or receiving reinforcements from New York. Within three weeks, Allied forces, led by General George Washington, General Comte de Rochambeau, and Virginia’s governor, Thomas Nelson Jr., arrived at Yorktown. The Allies advanced and initiated siege operations. Then, on October 14, the Allies captured two key British defensive positions outside of Yorktown. Cornwallis made one last attempt to escape Yorktown on the night of October 16–17, but a storm disrupted the operation. 

With his army trapped in Yorktown and no hope of escape, Cornwallis surrendered on October 19, 1781. With this, the British Southern Campaign came to an end, as did the last major military campaign of the American Revolutionary War.

Timeline

Battle of Alligator Creek Bridge

American forces tried and failed to seize the East Florida Colony from the British in 1776 and 1777. A third attempt was made in 1778, but became disorganized due to disagreements between John Houstoun, the Governor of Georgia, and General Robert Howe, the commander of the Southern Department of the Continental Army. American forces, led by Colonel James Screven and Colonel Elijah Clarke, clashed with British and Loyalist forces, led by Major Mark Prevost and Colonel Thomas Brown, at Alligator Creek Bridge. The Americans were driven off and withdrew. Afterward, Howe’s Army, struggling with food shortages and smallpox, returned to Georgia. This was the last attempt by American forces to capture East Florida. Soon after, Congress appointed General Benjamin Lincoln to replace Howe.

• Date: June 30, 1778.
• Location: Near present-day Callahan, Florida.
• Key American Participants: Robert Howe, James Screven, Colonel Elijah Clarke.
• Key British Participants: Mark Prevost, Thomas Brown.
• Winner: Great Britain.
• Significance: The British victory secured their control of East Florida for the remainder of the war.

Capture of Savannah

A British expedition, led by Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell, sailed from New York and advanced on American forces defending Savannah on December 29, 1778. General Robert Howe positioned the Southern Army to the east of Savannah, with swamps on both sides. A local slave, Quamino Dolly, informed Campbell of a path through the swamp on the right side of the American line. Campbell used this route to launch a two-pronged attack on Howe. He sent a contingent that moved through the swamp to attack from the right, while the main body attacked in the center. The Americans panicked and fled into the swamps, where many drowned. Campbell captured Savannah, allowing him to send forces to occupy Augusta and claim control over all of Georgia.

• Date: December 29, 1778.
• Location: Savannah, Georgia.
• Key American Participants: Robert Howe.
• Key British Participants: Archibald Campbell, James Baird.
• Winner: Great Britain.
• Significance: The British capture of Savannah secured British control of Georgia. It also encouraged Loyalist uprisings in the Backcountry, weakened American morale, and gave the British a secure base for future operations in the Southern Theater.

Battle of Port Royal Island

After the British captured Savannah, General Augustine Prevost sought to establish a base of operations on Port Royal Island, South Carolina, to launch a combined land-and-sea assault on Charleston. Prevost sent Major James Gardiner with 200 men to secure the island. General Benjamin Lincoln responded by sending General William Moultrie and a well-armed force of 300 men to meet Gardiner. On February 3, the two small armies met just outside of Beaufort, South Carolina. After they exchanged heavy fire for 45 to an hour, both sides started to run low on ammunition and decided to withdraw. However, when Moultrie realized Gardiner was retreating, he sent his cavalry in pursuit. The cavalry chased the British and captured a handful of them before turning back. The British evacuated and returned to Savannah.

• Date: February 3, 1779.
• Location: Beaufort, South Carolina.
• Key American Participants: William Moultrie.
• Key British Participants: James Gardiner.
• Winner: United States.
• Significance: The American victory at Port Royal Island prevented the British from establishing a naval base at Port Royal Island.

Battle of Kettle Creek

Colonel John Boyd, a Loyalist, worked his way through the Carolina Backcountry, recruiting Loyalists for the British war effort. As he marched to Augusta, Georgia, he was harassed by Patriot forces and clashed with Patriot militia at Vann’s Creek before crossing over into Georgia. Unknown to Boyd, Colonel Andrew Pickens was closing in on him to keep him from reaching Augusta. On the morning of February 14, 1779, Boyd and his men stopped near Kettle Creek long enough for Pickens and his men to surround them. The Patriots were divided into three columns, but two of them were bogged down trying to pass through swamps. The column led by Pickens advanced; however, the Loyalists held the high ground and controlled the battlefield. After intense fighting, Boyd was shot and fell, mortally wounded. Seeing this, his men scattered and fled.

• Date: February 14, 1779.
• Location: Near present-day Washington, Georgia.
• Key American Participants: Andrew Pickens, John Dooley, Thomas Clark.
• Key British Participants: John Boyd.
• Winner: United States.
• Significance: The American victory at Kettle Creek encouraged Backcountry Patriots to join the American war effort in the South.

Battle of Briar Creek

The Battle of Briar Creek took place after General John Ashe crossed into Georgia in pursuit of Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell, who was returning to Savannah. General Augustine Prevost sent reinforcements to join Campbell and ordered him to engage Ashe. Campbell sent Lieutenant Mark Prevost and Major William Macpherson to attack the Americans at Briar Creek, where they had stopped to repair the bridge. Macpherson launched a diversionary attack on the Americans in front, while Prevost attacked from behind. When the British carried out a bayonet attack, some of the Americans panicked and fled, causing the American line to collapse. Ashe tried to rally his men, but too many headed for the swamps and the Savannah River. Although many of them were able to escape by crossing the river on rafts or by swimming, some of them also drowned. The defeat shattered American plans to retake Georgia and strengthened British control of the state. Colonel Samuel Elbert was taken prisoner by the British.

• Date: March 3, 1779.
• Location: In present-day Eastern Georgia, around the confluence of Brier Creek and the Savannah River.
• Key American Participants: John Ashe, Samuel Elbert.
• Key British Participants: Mark Prevost, William Macpherson.
• Winner: Great Britain.
• Significance: The British victory at Briar Creek solidified British control over Georgia.

Hostilities Resume in Virginia with the Matthew-Collier Raid

In the spring of 1779, General Henry Clinton decided to expand British operations to Virginia. At the time, he only intended to inflict damage on Virginia’s economy and military supply system rather than occupy territory. The expedition combined naval and ground forces and was led by Commodore John Collier and General Edward Mathew. It left New York City on May 4.

British forces entered the Chesapeake Bay, quickly seized key positions, and carried out raids against coastal and river communities. Over several days, they destroyed ships, tobacco, and military stores while meeting almost no organized resistance.

• Date: May 8–26, 1779.
• Location: Various locations in Virginia.
• Key American Participants: None.
• Key British Participants: John Collier, Edward Mathew.
• Winner: Great Britain.
• Significance: The success of the raids convinced British military leaders that Virginia was vulnerable to small-scale attacks. Clinton resumed this strategy in October 1780.

First Battle of Charleston

The First Battle of Charleston, also known as Prevost’s Charleston Raid or the First Siege of Charleston, was a British expedition led by General Augustine Prevost that threatened Charleston, South Carolina. Prevost engaged American forces in several small battles during his march to Charleston. After Prevost arrived on the outskirts of the city, American forces led by Casimir Pulaski attacked, but were repulsed. William Moultrie proceeded to negotiate with Prevost to give General Benjamin Lincoln time to return to Charleston with the American Southern Army. When Prevost learned Lincoln was nearby, he withdrew to James Island and Johns Island.

• Date: May 11–12, 1779.
• Location: Charleston, South Carolina.
• Key American Participants: William Moutrie, John Laurens, Casimir Pulaski.
• Key British Participants: Augustine Prevost, John Maitland, James Moncrief.
• Winner: United States.
• Significance: American forces successfully repulsed Prevost’s attack on Charleston and retained control of the city.

Battle of Stono Ferry

General Augustine Prevost withdrew his forces to James Island and Johns Island. Near the Stono River, Prevost built three redoubts and stationed 900 of his troops there to defend the rear of his expedition as the rest withdrew. Although General Benjamin Lincoln had 7,000 troops at his disposal, he sent General William Moultrie, with only 1,200 men, in pursuit of Prevost. The Americans carried out a furious attack on the redoubts and inflicted heavy casualties. However, British forces were able to hold their positions. When the Americans learned that British reinforcements were en route, they withdrew.

• Date: June 20, 1779.
• Location: Savannah, Georgia.
• Key American Participants: William Moultrie.
• Key British Participants: Augustine Prevost.
• Winner: Great Britain.
• Significance: The British victory at Stono Ferry allowed Prevost’s Army to return to Savannah, where it reoccupied the city.

Siege of Savannah

General Benjamin Lincoln and the American Southern Army were joined by French land and sea forces under Vice Admiral Charles Henri d’Estaing. Together, they advanced on Savannah in September. After bombarding the city for more than two weeks, the Allied forces launched a ground assault against the Spring Hill Redoubt on October 9. Although the Allies had more men, they were unable to break the strong British defenses. Following the failed assault, the French withdrew and sailed to the West Indies. Without their support, Lincoln was forced to withdraw and return to Charleston. During the battle, Casimir Pulaski was mortally wounded and died two days later.

• Date:.September 16–October 18, 1779.
• Location: Savannah, Georgia.
• Key Allied Participants: Benjamin Lincoln, Charles Henri d’Estaing, Casimir Pulaski.
• Key British Participants: Augustine Prevost.
• Winner: Great Britain.
• Significance: The British victory at the Siege of Savannah allowed them to retain control of Georgia.

Siege of Charleston

After American and French forces failed to capture Savannah, Georgia, in October 1779, the Americans retreated to Charleston, South Carolina. Under the command of General Benjamin Lincoln, they fortified the city and prepared for a British attack. British forces under the command of General Henry Clinton landed in South Carolina and started building siege lines on April 1. For the next six weeks, the two sides bombarded each other. While the British slowly moved closer to Charleston, the Americans, who were greatly outnumbered, gradually ran out of food. By May 11, Lincoln and other American leaders, including Christopher Gadsden, knew the city could not hold out. Lincoln was forced to submit to the harsh terms of surrender, and more than 5,000 American troops were taken as prisoners. It was the most significant defeat suffered by American forces during the American Revolutionary War and a major turning point in the conflict.

• Date: April 1–May 12, 1780
• Location: Charleston, South Carolina
• Key American Leaders: Benjamin Lincoln
• Key British Leaders: Henry Clinton, Banastre Tarleton, Francis Rawdon, Charles Cornwallis
• Winner: Great Britain.
• Significance: The British victory at the Siege of Charleston led to the loss of a major American port and to the surrender of nearly the entire Southern Continental Army. It marked a turning point in the Southern Campaign, allowing British forces to advance into the Carolinas and Virginia.

Battle of Waxhaws

On May 29, 1780, in the Waxhaws Region near present-day Buford, South Carolina. British forces, led by Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton, won a decisive victory over a contingent of Continentals from Virginia, under the command of Colonel Abraham Buford. Buford and his men were on their way to Charleston, which was under siege by British forces. Before Buford arrived, General Benjamin Lincoln was forced to surrender the city. As a result, Buford was ordered to return to North Carolina. He was joined by troops who escaped from Charleston and started the march north. General Charles Cornwallis sent Tarleton after Buford. On May 29, Tarleton caught up with Buford in the Waxhaws Region. The accounts of the battle are generally contradictory. What is known is that the fight was short, fast, and bloody. According to some American accounts, Buford tried to surrender, but Tarleton ignored him and showed no mercy, or “no quarter.” The British unleashed a brutal attack, which ended in the brutal deaths of more than 110 Americans. In the aftermath of the British victory, militia forces collectively referred to as the Overmountain Men gathered in present-day Tennessee, and American troops shouted the battle cries of “Remember Tarleton’s Quarter!” and “Remember Waxhaws!” The brutal tactics at Waxhaws enhanced Tarleton’s reputation, contributing to his nickname, “Bloody Ban.”

• Also Known As: Buford’s Massacre.
• Date: May 29, 1780.
• Location: In the Waxhaws Region, near present-day Buford, South Carolina.
• Key American Leaders: Abraham Buford.
• Key British Leaders: Banastre Tarleton.
• Winner: Great Britain.
• Significance: The British victory at the Battle of Waxhaws led to increased hatred and resistance to British forces throughout the South Carolina backcountry and as far west as present-day Tennessee.

Battle of Camden

After General Benjamin Lincoln surrendered his army at Charleston in May 1780, a handful of American forces remained active in the Southern Theater. One, led by Colonel Abraham Buford, was crushed by British forces at the Battle of Waxhaws. Another, led by General Johann de Kalb, was marching to Charleston and stopped its advance outside of Raleigh, North Carolina.

Meanwhile, General Charles Cornwallis extended British control over the Southern Colonies by establishing a series of outposts in the Carolina Backcountry and carrying out raids on plantations owned by Patriots. After they burned the home of Thomas Sumter, he gathered volunteers into a militia force and carried out his own raids against the British outposts.

Congress responded to the defeat at Charleston by placing General Horatio Gates in command of the Southern Department. He traveled to North Carolina, took command of the Southern Army from de Kalb, and decided to attack the British outpost at Camden, South Carolina. Gates made this decision against the wishes of many of his officers, who believed the men were not prepared for a major engagement. He also chose a route to Camden that would take his army through unfriendly Loyalist territory.

While Gates marched to Camden with his “Grand Army,” Sumter harassed the British, which put them on alert. When he learned that Gates was on his way, Lieutenant Colonel Francis Rawdon-Hastings gathered troops from the outposts and went to engage him, while General Cornwallis marched from Charleston to Camden with reinforcements.

After a brief engagement at Lynches Creek between Gates and Rawdon-Hastings, the British withdrew to Camden, and the Americans prepared to carry out the attack there. Cornwallis was determined to protect Camden and marched to attack Gates at his camp.

On the night of August 15, 1780, both armies were marching toward each other, with the intention of attacking the following morning, when their advance forces came into contact. After a small skirmish, both forces withdrew and prepared for battle the next morning.

At daybreak on August 16, Gates and Cornwallis deployed their armies to form lines, while artillery batteries opened fire. During this deployment, Gates made critical errors by relying heavily on untrained militia forces and deploying some of them to his left, where they were opposed by veteran British regulars.

Gates ordered his army to advance, and the militia on his left wing fled in the face of a bayonet charge. When the left collapsed, Gates apparently fled from his headquarters and rode his horse to Rugeley’s Mill and then to Hillsborough.

The right wing of the American Army, under the command of de Kalb, was vulnerable to an attack on its left flank. With help from Colonel Otho Holland Williams, de Kalb pushed the British back until his troops were nearly surrounded and forced to flee. De Kalb was mortally wounded at this point and captured by the British.

The British swept the Americans from the field and sent them fleeing in various directions. The American Army was almost completely eliminated for the second time in three months. In the aftermath, Cornwallis prepared to invade North Carolina.

• Also Known As: Camden Campaign.
• Date: August 16, 1780.
• Location: Camden, South Carolina.
• Key American Leaders: Horatio Gates, Johann de Kalb, Edward Stevens, Otho Holland Williams, Charles Armand.
• Key British Leaders: Charles Cornwallis, Francis Rawdon, James Webster, Banastre Tarleton.
• Winner: Great Britain.
• Significance: The British victory at Camden was a devastating defeat for the Americans; it nearly led to the collapse of the war effort in the South and essentially ended the career of General Horatio Gates. Congress responded by appointing General George Washington’s choice, General Nathanael Greene, to command the Southern Department. Meanwhile, Thomas Sumter, Francis Marion, and the Overmountain Men continued to harass the British over the next two months, leading to the Battle of Kings Mountain in October.

Battle of Kings Mountain

Following the Battle of Camden, General Charles Cornwallis sent Major Patrick Ferguson westward into the Carolina Backcountry to recruit Loyalists and apprehend American forces that were retreating from Augusta, Georgia. During his expedition, Ferguson issued a proclamation that threatened frontier settlements.

Militia leaders from the western settlements, including Isaac Shelby, John Sevier, and William Campbell, mobilized their forces and gathered at Sycamore Shoals on the Watauga River, near present-day Elizabethton, Tennessee. By September 25, 1780, more than 1,000 mounted men had assembled. After prayer and preparation, they moved east in search of Ferguson, choosing to engage him before he advanced on their settlements. They were joined by Benjamin Cleveland and Charles McDowell.

Ferguson moved toward Ninety-Six, South Carolina, and the Overmountain Men followed him. Upon learning this, Ferguson moved to the top of Kings Mountain, which he thought provided him with a strong position that could be defended from all directions.

The Overmountain Men surrounded Kings Mountain on October 7 and attacked Ferguson’s camp. They climbed the steep, wooded slopes under fire and used accurate rifle fire from behind trees to counter Ferguson’s repeated bayonet charges. Although driven back several times, the Americans pressed in from all directions. Their steady advance and deadly marksmanship eventually overwhelmed Ferguson and his Loyalists, who were all killed or captured. Ferguson himself was killed after trying to rally his troops.

• Date: October 7, 1780.
• Location: Kings Mountain, South Carolina.
• Key American Leaders: William Campbell, James Johnston, John Sevier, Frederick Hambright, Joseph McDowell, Benjamin Cleveland, James Williams, Isaac Shelby, Joseph Winston, William Chronicle.
• Key British Leaders: Patrick Ferguson, Abraham de Peyster.
• Winner: United States.
• Significance: The American victory at Kings Mountain ended the British advance into the Backcountry and forced Cornwallis to temporarily withdraw from North Carolina and return to South Carolina.

The Campaign Expands to Virginia

While Cornwallis worked to maintain British authority in the Carolinas, Clinton sent another expedition to Virginia, in hopes that some American forces would be redirected from the Carolinas. General Alexander Leslie led about 2,500 troops to the Chesapeake Bay and carried out raids around Portsmouth, including Hampton, Newport News, and Nansemond County. Just like the Matthew-Collier Raid, there was very little organized American resistance.

• Leslie received orders to join Cornwallis instead of continuing raids.
• British troops reembarked between November 11 and November 16, 1780.
• The expedition sailed south on November 22, 1780.

By this time, Cornwallis believed that seizing control of Virginia would lead to the collapse of the American war effort, and tried to convince Clinton to abandon New York City. 

Clinton refused to give up New York City, but did proceed to send another expedition to Virginia to begin the process of asserting British control. This expedition was led by General Benedict Arnold, who narrowly escaped the American lines in September 1780, after his efforts to turn West Point over to British officials were discovered.

British Operations in Virginia

Cornwallis was determined to take control of Virginia, which he believed would bring about an end to the war. He even made the suggestion to General Clinton that British forces should abandon New York City and concentrate on Virginia. Clinton refused to give up the city, but he did agree to send General Benedict Arnold with 1,600 troops to help Cornwallis subdue Virginia.

Arnold’s Expedition arrived in early January 1781 and moved toward Richmond, Virginia. Although General Washington warned Governor Thomas Jefferson of the impending invasion, Jefferson failed to prepare Virginia’s defenses. This allowed Arnold to attack Richmond on January 5, where they destroyed military supplies and manufacturing facilities. Afterward, Arnold marched to Portsmouth. Meanwhile, Colonel John Graves Simcoe led an attack on Virginia Militia forces at Charles City on January 8. After routing the militia, he rejoined Arnold.

Outraged at Arnold’s attacks in Virginia, General Washington responded by sending the Marquis de Lafayette and 1,200 troops southward.

Battle of Cowpens

After taking command of the Southern Army, Nathanael Greene divided his forces into two divisions. He led one, and gave command of the other to Daniel Morgan. Greene moved to Cheraw, South Carolina, and sent Morgan westward, which threatened the British outposts in the Carolina Backcountry, including Ninety-Six.

Cornwallis responded by sending Banastre Tarleton to find and destroy Morgan’s Army. Tarleton pursued Morgan for more than two weeks. In mid-January, Morgan decided to draw Tarleton into battle in a field on an open plain known as the “Cowpens.” He planned to take advantage of the terrain and Tarleton’s aggressive nature and draw him into a trap.

Morgan organized his troops in three lines, placing his militia forces at the front. The plan called for the first two lines to fire on the British and then retreat. This was intended to draw Tarleton toward the third line, which would be on the top of a hill. After retreating, the first two lines were to reform and attack the British flanks. Hidden behind the hill were Morgan’s reserves, which included his dragoons and cavalry.

When Tarleton arrived on the morning of January 17, his men were exhausted from a long march, but he proceeded to attack without scouting the American positions in advance.

The first two American lines responded by firing and then retreating, according to the plan. William Washington and his dragoons helped cover them as they fell back. The British pressed forward, under heavy fire and suffering heavy casualties, until they reached the third line.

Due to a misunderstanding in orders, the third line started to withdraw and moved down the back side of the hill. When the British saw this, they rushed forward. Morgan took advantage and ordered the troops in the third line to turn and fire on them. The British were within close range when the Americans fired, and then attacked with their bayonets. At the same time, Morgan’s horsemen rode in and attacked the British on their right flank while Andrew Pickens and his militia forces attacked on the left flank. The British were taken by surprise. Many of them turned and ran, but some surrendered right away.

As the British fled, Washington confronted Tarleton on the battlefield, and the two fought in single combat. Both were wounded before Tarleton turned and fled. Washington pursued Tarleton for about 16 miles, but he was able to escape.

• Date: January 17, 1781.
• Location: Near Gaffney, South Carolina.
• Key American Leaders: Daniel Morgan, John Eager Howard, William Washington, Andrew Pickens, James McCall, John Cunningham, Charles McDowell.
• Key British Leaders: Banastre Tarleton, Archibald McArthur.
• Winner: United States.
• Significance: The American victory at Cowpens was another turning point of the war in the Southern Theater. Cornwallis lost some of his best troops in the battle, whom he was unable to replace, and Tarleton’s reputation was tarnished. The victory set the series of events in motion that ended with Cornwallis taking refuge in Yorktown, Virginia.

Race to the Dan

Following the Battle of Cowpens, Morgan withdrew northward and looked to reunite with Greene, who had remained at Cheraw with his half of the army. Frustrated with Tarleton’s defeat and lack of progress in the Southern Campaign, Cornwallis mobilized his own army and went in pursuit of Morgan. To speed up his march, he burned his tents, wagons, and excess provisions while he camped at Ramsour’s Mills.

Greene arrived at Morgan’s camp on the Catawba River on January 30, 1781. He held a council of war the next day, where he and his officers decided to continue retreating toward Virginia. Greene issued orders to the various elements of his army, instructing them to march to Salisbury, North Carolina, where they would merge and continue the march northward together.

While both armies moved toward Salisbury, the North Carolina Militia fought the British and delayed them. Cornwallis forced his way across the Catawba River on February 1, 1781, winning the Battle of Cowan’s Ford and scattering the militia.

By February 2, both Greene and Morgan were at Salisbury with Morgan’s Army. From there, they marched to Trading Ford on the Yadkin River, where they intended to cross and march on to Guilford Courthouse, North Carolina. Greene issued new orders to his officers, instructing them to gather at this new rendezvous point.

Cornwallis arrived at Trading Ford, but too late to stop Morgan from crossing. Without any boats to transport his men across the Yadkin River, Cornwallis was forced to march north to find another crossing.

Morgan’s Army was at Guilford Courthouse by February 6, and Greene joined them soon after. Greene held a council of war on February 9, where he and his officers agreed to continue retreating northward. They decided to cross the Dan River at Irwins’ Ferry and Boyd’s Ferry, roughly 70 miles away, near present-day South Boston, Virginia.

Greene organized an elite rear guard to cover his army as it marched to the crossings. He asked Morgan to lead the rear guard, but he was ill and unable to take command. Colonel Otho Holland Williams was given command and was assisted by Henry “Light Horse Harry” Lee and his cavalry, Lee’s Legion.

On February 13, Tarleton informed Cornwallis that Greene was headed for the ferries on the Dan River. Determined to intercept him, Cornwallis closed in on Greene and was four miles from him when Williams and Lee engaged the British Army’s advance forces. This engagement gave the main body of Greene’s Army time to cross the river.

With Cornwallis in pursuit, Green’s rear guard continued its march into the night of the 13th through cold, wet winter conditions. The next morning, Williams received a message that Greene had crossed the Dan. When he announced it to his men, they cheered. The British quickly resumed their pursuit, and the last group of Americans crossed the Dan River around 9:00 p.m. on February 14.

Cornwallis was unable to cross the Dan because the Americans had removed or destroyed all the boats in the area. He returned to Hillsborough, North Carolina, arriving there around February 20.

• Date: February 1–14, 1781.
• Location: South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia.
• Key American Leaders: Nathanael Greene, Daniel Morgan, Isaac Huger, Henry Lee, William Washington, John Eager Howard, William Campbell, Andrew Pickens, Edward Carrington, Tadeusz Kościuszko.
• Key British Leaders: Charles Cornwallis, Charles O’Hara, Banastre Tarleton.
• Winner: United States.
• Significance: Greene’s successful retreat preserved the Continental Army in the South and prevented Cornwallis from gaining a decisive victory. Greene reorganized and resupplied his forces in Virginia, while Cornwallis lost men and either used or destroyed valuable supplies that he could not replace.

Battle of Guilford Courthouse

Within a few days, Greene started sending American forces back into North Carolina, where Henry Lee and Andrew Pickens defeated Loyalists at the Battle of Haw River (c. February 25, 1781). This defeat and the return of American forces to the Carolinas dealt another blow to British recruiting efforts in the Southern Theater.

Greene sent Otho Holland Williams back across the Dan River, with orders to keep watch on Cornwallis and stay between him and Greene’s Army. Greene took the rest of his army toward Hillsborough. He intended to continue weakening Cornwallis by engaging him in small battles, instead of one large engagement.

Meanwhile, Cornwallis was running short on food and supplies. He left Hillsborough, marched southwest, and camped on the south side of Alamance Creek. Williams, Lee, and Pickens responded to this by uniting their commands at a camp on the north side of the creek, not far from where Cornwallis was. This led to the Battle of Clapp’s Mill (March 2, 1781), a small battle where Lee and Williams clashed with Tarleton, who was leading light infantry. The Americans were forced to retreat, but Tarleton did not pursue them because he did not want to engage Greene’s Army.

On March 6, Cornwallis advanced on an American outpost at High Rock Ford, where William Campbell and his Virginia Militia were camped. Cornwallis hoped this would force Greene to bring his army out and engage in a large battle. When the Battle of Wetzell’s Mill started, Williams sent Lee and William Washington to reinforce Campbell, organized the rest of his troops, and withdrew toward Wetzell’s Mill, where he intended to cross Reedy Fork and make his way to Green’s camp.

Tarleton pushed forward, drove the Americans back, and pursued Williams, followed by Cornwallis, to Reedy Creek. There, Henry Lee organized a defensive line to cover the American retreat. Although British forces pushed across the Creek, Lee successfully delayed them long enough, and Cornwallis ended the attack.

Afterward, Greene decided to engage Cornwallis and moved his army closer to Guilford Court House. Greene had around 4,400 men under his command, which made it the largest Southern Army assembled thus far in the war. He also outnumbered Cornwallis, who had between 1,900 and 2,200 men. By March 14, Greene’s Army was encamped at Guilford Court House.

At dawn on March 15, Cornwallis started the 12-mile march to Guilford Court House. Tarleton and his cavalry led the advance. Hostilities started around 10 a.m. when Lee’s Legion engaged Tarleton on the road to Guilford Court House. During this skirmish, Tarleton was wounded and lost two fingers on his right hand. After successfully delaying the British advance, Lee returned to Guilford Court House.

Lee’s action provided Greene with time to deploy his troops in three lines, in the same fashion as Daniel Morgan had done at the Battle of Cowpens. Greene intended to follow the same plan as Morgan and draw Cornwallis forward, so he could envelop his flanks. He placed his first line in clearing, which was surrounded by woods on both sides. The second line was in the woods behind the clearing, while the third line was on top of a hill, behind the woods.

Around noon, the Americans saw the British marching toward them, and a 30-minute artillery duel commenced. Cornwallis formed his line and advanced toward the first line of American troops around 1:00 p.m. British forces advanced on the first line, where the North Carolina Militia were positioned behind a fence. The militia opened fire and inflicted heavy casualties. The British pushed forward, and portions of the militia fled. The rest fired a second volley and retreated.

The British moved to the second line in the woods, where the Virginia Militia were positioned. The militia held their ground until they were overwhelmed and their line broke. However, British forces became disorganized as some units were sent into the woods on the sides of the battlefield to engage American forces that were firing on them. The fighting in the woods helped wear down the British as they advanced through the woods and approached the third line.

The third line consisted of Continental regulars from Maryland and Virginia. The British advanced, and the Americans fired on them at close range. The British fell back, but Greene did not pursue them and destroy them. Instead, he held his position on the hill. 

This allowed the British to regroup and continue the attack. Eventually, some of them broke through the line. This led to intense close-range fighting.

As the fight on the hill intensified, William Washington and his cavalry charged into the rear of the British forces. At this point, Cornwallis was concerned that his men were trapped and his army would be destroyed. He made a drastic decision to fire grapeshot over his men into the melee. The shot struck both British and American troops and drove them apart. The British were able to regroup first, and Greene issued orders for his army to withdraw to Troublesome Creek. This left the field to Cornwallis, whose army suffered heavy casualties.

• Date: March 15, 1781.
• Location: Guilford Courthouse, North Carolina.
• Key American Leaders: Nathanael Greene.
• Key British Leaders: Charles Cornwallis.
• Winner: Great Britain.
• Significance: Despite the British victory at Guilford Courthouse, they suffered casualties and failed to destroy Greene’s Army. Cornwallis was forced to withdraw from the interior of North Carolina and moved to Wilmington on the Cape Fear River. Meanwhile, Greene moved his army into South Carolina.

French Forces Sent to Virginia

In late February, Jean-Baptiste-Donatien de Vimeur, Comte de Rochambeau, the commander of French forces in America, decided to send the French Navy and 1,200 troops to reinforce Lafayette and help him defeat Arnold. The British Navy engaged the French Navy in the Battle of Cape Henry on March 16. The French were forced to withdraw and return to Newport.

• Lafayette marched to Head of Elk, arriving there on March 3. Afterward, he transported his men via ships to Annapolis.
• General William Phillips arrived at Portsmouth with 2,600 British reinforcements on March 26, 1781.
• Lafayette was faced with having to engage both Arnold and Phillips, with no naval support and limited support from the Continental Army and the Virginia Militia.

Cornwallis Withdraws to Wilmington

Cornwallis remained at Guilford Courthouse for two days, but he did not have enough food to feed his men or medical supplies to treat the wounded. The closest British supply depot was at Wilmington, which was 200 miles away. 

• Cornwallis sent foraging parties out to look for food, but they were attacked and forced to return to the camp.
• British doctors treated the wounded soldiers from both armies, but were overwhelmed. American doctors returned to the battlefield, under a flag of truce, to help.

Cornwallis left Guilford Courthouse on March 18, 1781. Greene sent Lee and William Campbell to follow, to show people living in the region that it was under American control. Greene’s Army departed Troublesome Creek on March 20 and also followed Cornwallis, and Greene looked for an opportunity to attack.

• Cornwallis had his men build a bridge where the Deep River and Haw River come together to form the Cape Fear River. Although Greene sent Lee to destroy the bridge, it was too well-defended.
• Cornwallis’s Army crossed over and continued to march southward, toward Wilmington, along the Cape Fear River.

Cornwallis marched to Cross Creek, a Loyalist settlement populated by Scottish Highlanders. Unfortunately, the inhabitants did not have food or supplies, and Cornwallis continued the march.

• His army passed through hostile territory, which kept boats from moving up the Cape Fear River to deliver food and supplies.
• The men suffered during the long march, and some key officers died from their wounds, including Colonel James Webster.
• Cornwallis finally arrived at Wilmington on April 7.

Meanwhile, Greene coordinated his operations with Francis Marion, Thomas Sumter, and Andrew Pickens. Together, they sought to push British and Loyalist forces out of the Backcountry and key outposts at Camden and Ninety-Six in South Carolina, and Augusta, Georgia.

After ending his pursuit of Cornwallis, Greene marched toward Camden. Cornwallis expected Greene to attack the outpost, but decided the long march from Wilmington to Camden to support Rawdon would be too risky for his army. He remained in Wilmington, but soon decided that the Carolinas were essentially lost.

Cornwallis became determined to seize control of Virginia and believed it would help stabilize control of the Carolinas. He withdrew from Wilmington and went northward to Virginia.

Arnold Advances on Petersburg

By mid-April, Lafayette left Baltimore and was marching southward to Virginia. On April 18, 1781, Arnold led 2,500 troops out of Portsmouth and sailed to Hampton Roads, where he landed troops who carried out raids and destroyed supplies.

On April 24, Arnold landed at City Point and marched to Petersburg, where the American garrison of 1,000 men was led by General John Peter Muhlenberg. Arnold attacked, pushed the Americans out of the city, and then occupied it.

Battle of Hobkirk’s Hill

Loyalist forces were defeated at Horner’s Creek, Hammond’s Mill, and Hulin’s Mill in South Carolina, as American forces pushed toward Camden. They captured Fort Watson on April 23, 1781, which cut Camden’s communication and supply lines to Charleston.

Greene moved his army to Hobkirk Hill, just north of Camden, on the Camden-Waxhaws Road.  He chose the location because it was a strong defensive position, on high ground, protected by woods and swamps. He organized the camp so that he could quickly respond to a British attack. By this time, Greene had 1,550 men with him and did not think his force was strong enough to launch a direct attack on Camden.

On the night of April 24–25, Lieutenant Colonel Francis Rawdon, the British commander at Camden, received intelligence about Greene’s Army from an American deserter. Rawdon quickly organized 800 of his troops and marched eastward around 9:00 a.m. on the 25th. He intended to turn northward and approach Hobkirk Hill from the southeast.

American scouts failed to detect Rawdon’s movements, and their pickets (guards) on the perimeter of the camp were taken by surprise. However, Greene had correctly guessed that an attack would come from the southeast, so his troops were already aligned for battle. Greene and his officers were eating breakfast when the first shots were fired.

The American pickets were joined by light infantry. Together, they slowed the British advance. This gave Greene’s troops enough time to prepare for battle and form a line. As the British approached, American artillery batteries opened fire on them at close range. The Americans charged with bayonets and attacked as the British paused. Rawdon responded to the attack by extending the right side of his line past the end of Greene’s line, which put the British in position to outflank the Americans.

A portion of the American line paused to fire on the British. However, an American officer was killed, which created confusion that quickly turned to panic. The American line started to break apart, and the British rushed forward and attacked. 

As the American line collapsed, British forces threatened to capture their artillery. Greene sent troops to defend the gun, but they were driven back by the British advance. William Washington and his dragoons rode in, drove the British away, and then hauled the gun to safety.

Greene ordered his troops to withdraw, and they started an organized retreat. The British followed them for several miles, but the American rear guard that covered the retreat slowed them down, and Rawdon eventually ended the operation.

That night, Greene’s Army encamped near the site of the Battle of Camden. The next day, the army moved to Rugeley’s Mill, where Greene regrouped his men and reorganized them.

• Date: April 25, 1781.
• Location: Hobkirk Hill, South Carolina.
• Key American Leaders: Nathanael Greene.
• Key British Leaders: Francis Rawdon-Hastings
• Winner: Great Britain.
• Significance: Despite the British victory at Hobkirk’s Hill, they suffered heavy casualties, and Greene’s Army survived to continue its mission of slowly wearing them down.

Action at Osborne’s

On April 27, 1781, Arnold marched to Osborne’s, 15 miles south of Richmond on the James River, where the Virginia Navy was waiting for the French Navy to arrive. Together, the Virginians and French were planning to attack Arnold at Portsmouth.

Arnold arrived at Osborne’s and caught the Virginia Navy by surprise. After the Virginians refused his terms of surrender, Arnold opened fire on the ships with his artillery batteries. The heavy fire from Arnold’s troops caused panic on the Virginia ships. One was abandoned, and the rest prepared to flee. By the end of the day, the British burned or sank several ships and captured nearly 15 others.

Lafayette in Richmond

Lafayette and his troops arrived at Richmond on April 29. This forced Phillips to fall back to Petersburg, where he joined with Cornwallis on May 20.

• Cornwallis received 1,500 reinforcements from Clinton, boosting his troop strength to 7,200.
• Lafayette received 2,000 reinforcements from the Virginia Militia and Armand’s Legion (mountain infantry), boosting his strength to around 3.000.

Understanding he was outnumbered two to one, Lafayette informed Washington that he intended to avoid a major engagement and would harass British forces in the region.

American Forces Advance Toward Camden

In early May, Greene prepared to continue attacking the British outposts between Camden and Charleston, and learned there was a small British force, led by Lieutenant Colonel John Watson Tadwell-Watson, on its way to Camden. This was a concern for Greene, because if Watson made it to Camden, there was a chance a combined British force would be able to challenge him. 

Marion, Lee, and Greene moved to engage Watson while Sumter initiated a siege of Fort Granby. Watson successfully avoided the Americans and made his way to Camden, forcing Greene to move his army. He left a small force at Sawney’s Creek and moved the rest of the army to Colonel’s Creek.

On the night of May 7, Rawdon and Watson approached Sawney’s Creek. Greene responded by moving toward them, and a small battle occurred between the lead units. Following this, Rawdon withdrew, believing Greene’s position was too strong for him to attack. Over the next few days, Rawdon reorganized British forces in the Backcountry and decided to abandon Camden. On May 10, he burned most of the town and any supplies he could not take with him and marched toward Charleston. 

Greene occupied Camden (May 11), and American forces captured the garisons at Orangeburg (May 11) and Fort Motte (May 12). Rawdon responded to the capture of Fort Motte by ordering the garrison at Nelson’s Ferry to abandon their post. American forces continued to capture key outposts, taking Fort Granby (May 14), and Fort Galphin (May 21). These losses left British control in Georgia and South Carolina to Savannah, Augusta, Ninety-Six, Georgetown, and Charleston.

Siege of Augusta

Greene sent Henry Lee and his Legion with Major Pinketham Eaton and his North Carolina Militia into Georgia, where Pickens and Colonel Elijah Clarke had initiated a siege of Augusta on April 16.

Augusta was defended by Fort Cornwallis on the northwest side and Fort Grierson about a half mile to the west. Colonel Thomas Brown commanded the British forces at Fort Cornwallis, which included Loyalists and Creek warriors.

Lee captured Fort Galphin on May 21, which left Brown’s forces at Augusta isolated and deprived them of reinforcements and supplies. Major Joseph Eggleston, with some of Lee’s Legion, arrived at Fort Cornwallis and informed Brown that Fort Galphin had been captured and more American forces were on their way. Eggleston asked Brown to surrender, and he refused.

After Lee and the rest of his forces arrived, the Americans surrounded and attacked Fort Grierson on May 23. They quickly overwhelmed and captured the garrison and then proceeded to initiate siege operations against Fort Cornwallis by digging siege lines and building a “Mahan Tower,” a tall wooden structure that allowed the Americans to fire over the walls of the fort. American forces prepared to assault the fort on June 4, but Brown agreed to negotiate and surrendered on June 5. Lee and Pickens went to Ninety Six, where they joined the siege operations.

• Date: May 22–June 5, 1781.
• Location: Augusta, Georgia.
• Key American Leaders: Henry Lee, Andrew Pickens.
• Key British Leaders: Thomas Brown.
• Winner: United States.
• Significance: The American victory at Augusta freed it from British control.

Siege of Ninety-Six

Greene marched to Ninety-Six and started siege operations on May 22, without requesting the fort’s commander, Lieutenant Colonel John Harris Cruger, to surrender. Greene’s engineer, Tadeusz Kosciuszko, started the siege lines too close to the fort. Cruger responded by launching an attack that destroyed the initial works and inflicted casualties on the Americans.

Greene resumed building the siege lines at a safer distance, although still under fire from the garrison, which remained safe inside the fort. Greene used his artillery to cover his men while they dug the new siege lines. Greene also had his men build a Mahan Tower, which his men climbed up so they could fire down into the fort.

After Lee and Pickens joined Greene, they targeted Fort Holmes, a small fort west of the main stockade that protected the water supply. Lee oversaw the construction of trenches toward this fort. Cruger responded by sending troops out from the fort to attack at night.

As the siege continued, Rawdon was joined by reinforcements that arrived from Ireland, giving him 2,000 troops. He organized them and marched to Cruger’s aid.

When Green found out Rawdon was coming, he launched an attack on the fort, but failed to breach the walls. With Rawdon in the area, Greene decided to abandon the siege and withdrew on June 20.

Rawdon pursued the Greene for roughly 25 miles but stopped after the Americans crossed the Broad River. Greene moved his army to the High Hills of the Santee.

• Date: May 22–June 20, 1781.
• Location: Ninety-Six, South Carolina
• Key American Leaders: Nathanael Greene, Henry Lee, and Andrew Pickens.
• Key British Leaders: John Harris Cruger.
• Winner: Great Britain.
• Significance: Although the British victory at the Siege of Ninety-Six saved the outpost, the hard march to Ninety-Six further drained British resources.

Cornwallis Advances on Richmond

Cornwallis left Petersburg on May 24, 1781, and started marching to Richmond. He camped at Hanover Junction on June 1 and sent Tarleton and Simcoe to scout Lafayette’s camp at Winston’s Bridge, eight miles north of Richmond.

• Aware of Cornwallis’s approach, Lafayette retreated to Dandridge’s on the South Anna River on May 28, where he intended to wait for reinforcements.
• When Lafayette learned that Anthony Wayne was marching to join him, he decided to keep moving, so Cornwallis could not move troops to cut off Wayne.
• Lafayette marched north to Ely’s Ford on the Rapidan River, 20 miles above Fredericksburg.

Cornwallis followed Lafayette as far as the North Anna River, but was unable to trap him. He abandoned the pursuit and turned his attention to carrying out more raids.

• On June 1, he sent Simcoe to carry out a raid on the American supply depot at Point of Fork.
• Point of Fork lies where the Fluvanna and Rivanna Rivers meet to form the James River.
• The depot was guarded by Baron Frederick von Steuben and roughly 550 Continentals.

Von Steuben had his men move the supplies across the Fluvanna River, and then followed with the main body of his troops.

• Simcoe followed and engaged the rear of von Steuben’s column.
• The Americans crossed the river.
• Simcoe could not follow due to a lack of boats.

He had his men spread out and set campfires to make it look like he had more men under his command. Von Steuben fell for the ruse, abandoned the supplies, and retreated southward to Cole’s Ferry. After the Americans left, Simcoe’s men crossed the river and destroyed the supplies.

Charlottesville Raid

On June 4, 1781, Cornwallis sent Tarleton to attack Charlottesville. During his approach, he attacked and destroyed a wagon train carrying supplies meant for Greene’s Army.

• The Virginia legislature was meeting in Charlottesville.
• After receiving a warning of Tarleton’s approach, they fled the city
• Tarleton captured some of them, including the legendary frontiersman, Daniel Boone.
• Boone was held as a prisoner for a few days and then released on parole.
• Thomas Jefferson escaped by fleeing into the mountains.

Afterward, both Tarleton and Simcoe rejoined Cornwallis at Elk Hill, a few miles south of Point of Fork. Meanwhile, Arnold was recalled to New York, ending his involvement in the Southern Campaign and in Virginia.

Wayne Joins Lafayette

Wayne joined Lafayette on Jun 10, 1781, with about 800 troops. A few days later, they were joined by General William Campbell and 600 men from the Virginia Militia.

Cornwallis Withdraws to Richmond

On June 9, 1781, Cornwallis left Elk Hill and moved eastward toward Richmond. This led Lafayette and Wayne to believe that Cornwallis did not have enough supplies to continue carrying out raids on American supply depots. 

• Cornwallis’s true intent was to move closer to the Chesapeake Bay, which would help improve communication with Clinton in New York City.
• Lafayette followed Cornwallis for about 20 miles.
• Cornwallis entered Richmond on June 16.
• Lafayette remained at Dandridge’s on the South Anna River 
• Cornwallis left Richmond on June 20 and continued marching eastward.
• Lafayette resumed his march and followed Cornwallis.
• By this time, Lafayette had 4,500 men under his command.

Spencer’s Ordinary

During his march, Lafayette spread his troops out across various roads to give the British the impression he had a much larger force.

• Cornwallis encamped near Williamsburg.
• On June 23, 1781, Simcoe and his rangers were sent to attack an American storehouse on the Chickahominy River west of Williamsburg.

Lafayette sent Colonel Richard Butler to engage Simcoe. Butler and his men marched through the night of June 25–26 and found Simcoe and his men at a local tavern, Spencer’s Ordinary, in the morning.

• The Americans attacked, but Simcoe’s Rangers held their position.
• When the Americans pulled back, Simcoe withdrew to Williamsburg.
• The Americans did not pursue them due to the presence of Cornwallis’s Army in Williamsburg.

Cornwallis remained in Williamsburg, while Lafayette continued to keep watch on him.

Rawdon Withdraws

Rawdon decided to withdraw his troops from Ninety-Six. He left on July 3 and went to Fort Granby and then Orangeburg. Cruger followed and joined him at Orangeburg, as did Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Stewart, who brought the 3rd Regiment from Charleston.

While Greene rested his army for six weeks, Stewart occupied Orangeburg while Rawdon continued to Charleston. American forces led by Marion, Sumter, and Lee, followed Rawdon to Charleston until he reached the city and then pulled back.

• Sumter operated near Fort Granby.
• Marion went to Nelson’s Ferry.
• Pickens operated around Ninety Six.

Soon after, Rawdon left South Carolina due to illness, and the command of British forces transferred to Stewart.

Clinton’s Request for Troops

In New York City, Clinton was concerned that General Washington and Comte Rochambeau were preparing to attack. Because of this, he ordered Cornwallis to send him 3,000 troops. To do this, Cornwallis needed to make his way to Portsmouth.

• Cornwallis left Williamsburg on July 4, 1781.
• Lafayette believed this offered him a chance to strike.
• Lafayette planned to attack the rear of Cornwallis’s Army while it was crossing the James River.

Greenspring Farm

Cornwallis started crossing the James River on July 5, 1781. The next day, July 6, Lafayette put his plan in motion and sent Wayne and 500 troops to attack. Cornwallis expected an attack and sent Simcoe’s Rangers to guard the rear while also putting troops in position to ambush the Americans.

• American forces clashed with Tarleton’s Legion to open the battle.
• Tarleton fell back into the woods, hoping to draw the Americans into the trap.
• The Americans could not see the British troops behind Tarleton’s line.

Cornwallis was hesitant to attack Wayne because he wanted Lafayette to enter the battle first. This, he hoped, would allow him to strike a decisive blow. Lafayette finally arrived around 5:00, and Cornwallis ordered his troops to advance.

• Cornwallis and Wayne formed battle lines.
• The British advanced and pushed the Americans back.
• Instead of retreating, Wayne ordered a bayonet attack.

The Americans charged, but heavy fire forced them to stop. This led to fierce hand-to-hand fighting for about 15 minutes.

• As darkness fell, Wayne ordered his men to retreat.
• Cornwallis did not pursue the Americans, who regrouped at Greenspring.

Cornwallis resumed his march, crossed the James River, and continued on to Suffolk and Portsmouth. While doing so, he sent Tarleton to attack American supply depots in Bedford County.

• Lafayette sent Wayne and Morgan to counter Tarleton.
• Tarleton burned some tobacco and rejoined Cornwallis at Suffolk.

Cornwallis sent the 3,000 troops requested by Clinton to Portsmouth, while Lafayette camped at Malvern Hill between Richmond and Westover to observe British movements.

Cornwallis Occupies Yorktown

Correspondence between Clinton and Cornwallis was slow due to the distance between them. This often led to confusion, which was increased by the fact that Cornwallis did not agree with Clinton’s overall strategy.

Clinton issued orders for Cornwallis to occupy Old Point Comfort, Virginia, and, potentially, Yorktown. Cornwallis inspected Old Point with a group of engineers. They decided it did not provide a strong defensive position, nor would it suffice to use as a naval base.

• Cornwallis chose to occupy Yorktown and Gloucester.
• They were located on opposite sides of the York River.
• He started fortifying both positions.
• Clinton accepted this decision.

Washington Decides on Yorktown

The reality was that Washington did want to attack New York City, and even had a plan in place in May 1781, when he was informed that Admiral François-Joseph-Paul, Comte de Grasse, was being sent to the West Indies with a new fleet of French ships. De Grasse intended to sail from the West Indies to Rhode Island to help support Washington and Rochambeau.

• In July, Roachambea joined Washington in the Hudson River Valley.
• They intended to attack British forts on the north end of Manhattan Island.
• The plan called for surprise assaults on Fort Knyphausen, Fort Tryon, Fort George, the works on Cox Hill, and the defenses at Kingsbridge.

General Benjamin Lincoln led troops to attack Fort Knyphausen, but abandoned the plan due to the presence of British troops and the presence of a warship on the river. Lincoln tried to attack another location, but was attacked by a British foraging party. Both parties withdrew, and Washington moved his army to Dobbs Ferry.

• From July 21 to July 24, 1781, Washington and Rochambeau examined the British lines around New York City.
• They eventually decided an attack could not be made due to the presence of British warships on the rivers.

Although he was disappointed, Washington decided to consider moving south to engage Cornwallis in Virginia. He had two options:

1. He could join Green and attack Charleston.
2. He could join Lafayette and attack Yorktown.

Admiral de Grasse sent a message to Washington that said he had changed his plan and intended to take his fleet to the Chesapeake Bay. He said he would leave the West Indies on August 13 and would remain in the Chesapeake until mid-October.

• Washington received the letter on August 14.
• De Grasse asked Washington to respond immediately.
• The plan convinced Washington to take his army southward.

To prepare for the action, he sent orders to Lafayette and General William Heath and responded to de Grasse.

• August 15 — Washington ordered Lafayette to position his troops to block Cornwallis from retreating into North Carolina.
• August 17 — He sent General Louis Duportail with a letter to de Grasse explaining that both the American and French armies would meet him in the Chesapeake. He suggested they could attack either Charleston or Yorktown, depending on the conditions, and also asked de Grasse to send transports to Head of Elk, Maryland, to help move troops to the bay area.
• August 19 — Washington instructed Heath to take command of the American troops that remained in the Hudson Highlands.

Finally, on August 21, the two armies started their march south. Washington and the other officers kept the true destination a secret. The armies moved in a way that led General Clinton and the Allied troops to believe they intended to attack New York City.

• It was a bold, decisive move by Washington.
• Around September 2, Clinton realized the Allied armies were marching southward.

Washington’s Army, 2.000 strong, marched through Princeton and Trenton, crossed the Delaware River, and on to Philadelphia. The French Army followed.

• Both marched through the city while large crowds watched and cheered.
• The armies marched to Head of Elk.
• The first Americans arrived at Head of Elk on September 6, while the first French arrived on September 8.
• All forces were at Head of Elk by September 18.

Lafayette moved his troops to a position near Williamsburg, Virginia. This put the main body of Cornwallis’s Army between the York River and Lafayette. The Allied armies were transported from Head of Elk to Williamsburg, and all troops were there by September 26.

Meanwhile, General Mordecai Gist reported to Washington that de Grasse arrived in the Chesapeake Bay.

• De Grasse arrived outside Hampton Roads on August 30 with 24 ships of the line and six frigates.
• His flagship, the Ville de Paris, carried 110 guns and was the largest warship afloat.
• Most ships in his fleet carried between 64 and 80 guns, with many rated at 74 guns.
• Admiral Louis Jacques, Comte de Barras, sailed from Newport, Rhode Island, with eight ships of the line to join de Grasse.

The British responded to the French by sending a small fleet under the command of General Samuel Hood and General Thomas Graves to block their maneuvers.

• The British sailed from New York with 19 ships of the line and seven frigates.
• They intended to intercept Barras or block de Grasse from entering the Chesapeake Bay.
• De Grasse reached the bay before the British arrived and landed 3,000 troops to reinforce Lafayette.

Battle of the Chesapeake Capes

Graves and Hood united their forces and arrived off the Virginia Capes on September 5, 1781, and de Grasse sailed out to meet them. Although the British had the advantage of the wind, Graves followed a traditional battle plan, which allowed the French to organize their attack. 

After hours of maneuvering, the fleets engaged in a short but intense battle that ended without a clear tactical winner. In the following days, the damaged British fleet delayed further action, while de Grasse moved north to protect the Chesapeake.

When the British returned to the Chesapeake on September 12, they found that de Barras had already joined with de Grasse, giving the French superior strength. Graves chose to return to New York to refit rather than continue the fight. This decision allowed the French to control the Chesapeake, ensuring Cornwallis could not be rescued by water.

• Date: September 5, 1781.
• Location: Virginia Capes, off the coast of Virginia.
• Key French Leaders: François-Joseph-Paul Comte de Grasse, Louis Jacques Comte de Barras.
• Key British Leaders: Thomas Graves, Samuel Hood.
• Winner: French Navy.
• Significance: The French Navy’s victory at the Battle of the Chesapeake Capes drove the British Navy away from Virginia, cutting off any chance of Cornwallis escaping from Yorktown by sea. Afterward, Washington and Rochambeau marched to Yorktown instead of Charleston.

Battle of Eutaw Springs

Stewart gathered his forces, left Orangeburg, and moved toward Greene, who responded by sending raiding parties to attack British forces. Stewart moved his army to Eutaw Springs, where he waited for supplies to arrive from Charleston. He sent roughly 400 men to protect the supply train.

On August 22, Greene started his march to Eutaw Springs and was joined by reinforcements. This gave him enough troops to consider a larger engagement. 

On September 7, he was seven miles from Stewart’s camp, at Burdell’s Plantation. American forces blocked many of the roads and passes through the woods and swamps, which made it difficult for Stewart to gather intelligence on Greene’s movements. Greene’s Army started its march to Eutaw Springs around 4:00 a.m. on September 8.

Stewart was informed that the Americans were advancing, but he did not believe it. Still, he sent Major John Coffin with cavalry and infantry out on a scouting mission. Around 8:00, the lead elements of Greene’s Army saw Coffin’s men on the road and took defensive positions. Coffin ordered his men to charge the American line, and most of the infantry were killed or captured. 

The cavalry escaped and fled back to the British camp at Eutaw Springs, where they alerted Stewart. He responded by quickly forming his troops into a line, with his artillery in the center. Greene deployed his troops into two lines and advanced through the woods toward the British line.

The first shots were fired around 9:00. After intense firing from Greene’s troops, Stewart launched an attack on the center of the first American line. The center of this collapsed, but the wings held. Green responded by sending troops to reinforce the center. The first line reformed, and the Americans pushed the British back, scattering them across the battlefield. The only British unit that held together was led by Major John Majoribanks.

As the British fled, Greene sent William Washington and his cavalry to engage Majoribanks and his men, who were in the woods. The Americans entered the woods on their horses, which exposed them to heavy fire. Washington was wounded, and his horse was shot out from under him. Intense hand-to-hand fighting followed. Majoribanks and his men captured Washington and routed the rest of his command. Captain Robert Kirkwood of the 1st Maryland Regiment led infantry into this fight and drove away Majoribanks and his men. Majoribanks took a strong defensive position along Eutaw Creek and reorganized his troops.

The Americans pursued the British through the camp and along the road to Charleston, taking 300 prisoners and two artillery pieces. Although the main body of Stewart’s Army was fleeing, Majoribanks remained on the battlefield, as did Coffin’s cavalry, along with Major Henry Sheridan and his men, who had taken refuge in a brick house and continued to fire on the Americans, many of whom had stopped their pursuit and turned to plundering the British camp.

Greene was unaware that many of his men had stopped pursuing the British and ordered his artillery to open fire on the brick house, where Sheridan and his men were. While the American artillerymen were moving their guns into position, they came under heavy fire, and many of the artillerymen were killed.

Coffin was engaged by a portion of Lee’s Legion and repulsed the attack. As the Americans fell back, Majoribanks’s men fired on them and then emerged from the woods into the open field. They captured the American guns and then launched an attack on the distracted Americans in the camp. They drove the Americans into the woods, which gave Stewart time to reorganize his retreating forces and return to the battlefield.

By this time, the battle had been going on for at least three hours, under a hot sun. The battered Americans withdrew while Stewart remained at Eutaw Springs. The next day, Stewart left Eutaw Springs and marched to Charleston.

• Date: September 8, 1781.
• Location: Eutaw Springs, South Carolina.
• Key American Leaders: Nathanael Greene, Jethro Sumner, Otho Holland Williams, Henry Lee, William Washington, Robert Kirkwood.
• Key British Leaders: Alexander Stewart, John Majoribanks, and Henry Sheridan.
• Winner: Great Britain.
• Significance: Despite the British victory at Eutaw Springs, Stewart lost too many men and was forced to go to Charleston. As a result, British control of the South was reduced to Savannah and Charleston.

The Campaign Ends in Georgia and the Carolinas

The British defeat at Augusta, coupled with the withdrawals from Ninety-Six and the other Carolina Backcountry outposts, brought the British Southern Campaign to an end in Georgia and the Carolinas. Stewart continued his march to Charleston and was joined by British forces along the way. 

Meanwhile, Greene followed Stewart and sent Marion and Lee ahead to harass his column. They were unable to block the British march, and Stewart made his way to Monck’s Corner, north of Charleston. Greene ended his pursuit and returned to Eutaw Springs and then to the High Hills of the Santee.

Siege of Yorktown

On September 28, 1781, Washington and Rochambeau started marching from Williamsburg to Yorktown. As they arrived in the area, they surrounded British forces around Yorktown and Gloucester Point.

The British had built a curved line of defensive works, including redoubts and artillery batteries, around Yorktown. These works were connected by trenches. 

• Several British ships, including the 44-gun frigates Charon and Guadeloupe, remained in the York River, which provided additional support.
• Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Dundas and 700 troops defended Gloucester Point and were supported by Tarleton’s Legion.

On September 30, Cornwallis decided to consolidate his troops closer to Yorktown and withdrew them from the defensive works southwest of the town. It is believed that Cornwallis did this, in part, because he received a message from Clinton that indicated 5.000 reinforcements were on their way.

• Allied forces occupied the abandoned defensive works and started siege preparations.
• Colonel Alexander Scammell was shot and mortally wounded by men from Tarleton’s Legion after they captured him while he was scouting the abandoned defensive works.
• French and British forces skirmished along the front of the lines.
• British artillery bombarded the Allies while they worked to build new redoubts and defensive works.

Allied forces spent the first week of October preparing to advance the siege and move the lines closer to Yorktown. During this time, Allied forces clashed with Tarleton’s Legion near Gloucester Point. The British were forced to retreat, and French forces established a camp nearby, holding this position until the end of the siege, preventing Tarleton from taking further action.

While the Allies dug siege lines, British artillery bombarded them, and the British sent out raiding parties to attack workers. The Allies responded by placing artillery batteries in position to return fire. General Washington personally fired the first shot of the bombardment.

As the siege lines moved closer to Yorktown, the Allies closed in on two redoubts on the east side of Yorktown that were blocking the extension of a second siege line, or parallel. On October 14, American forces attacked Redoubt No. 10, closest to the river, while French forces attacked Redoubt No. 9. Alexander Hamilton led the American attack. Both attacks were successful and drove the British from the earthen forces, allowing Allied forces to occupy them, extend the second parallel, and establish new artillery batteries.

Cornwallis sent troops out to attack the new batteries on October 16. While they were able to damage some of the guns, they were driven back by French troops. This allowed the guns to be repaired within a few hours.

As the Allied forces closed in, Cornwallis decided to evacuate his army from Yorktown to Gloucester Point. If he succeeded, he believed he could march northward to New York with little resistance. On the night of the 16th, he started moving troops across the York River; however, a storm blew in and ended the operation.

The next morning, October 17, Allied batteries opened fire on Yorktown. The heavy bombardment did significant damage to British defenses. British batteries were unable to respond due to a lack of ammunition. A British drummer climbed a parapet and beat the signal for parlay. When the Allies realized what was happening, they stopped firing. Then, a British officer approached with a white handkerchief, the signal for parlay. He was blindfolded and taken to General Washington, where he asked for a 24-hour armistice to negotiate the terms of surrender. Washington gave Cornwallis two hours for written proposals.

Commissioners from both sides met on October 18 to draft the Articles of Surrender, which were signed on October 19. That afternoon, the British marched out of Yorktown to the Surrender Field, where they stacked their arms. As they did so, the British band played “The World Turned Upside Down.”

With the surrender, the British Southern Campaign came to an end, although British forces still controlled New York City, Charleston, and Savannah. While major fighting ended, military operations continued, which included General Anthony Wayne’s Georgia Expedition. This pushed the British out of Savannah and restored Patriot control of Georgia.

• Also Known As: Battle of Yorktown.
• Date: September 28–October 19, 1781.
• Location: Yorktown, Virginia.
• Key Allied Leaders: George Washington, Lafayette, Jean-Baptiste-Donatien de Vimeur, Comte de Rochambeau, François-Joseph-Paul, Comte de Grasse, Alexander Hamilton.
• Key British Leaders: Charles Cornwallis, Banastre Tarleton.
• Winner: United States.
• Significance: The Allied victory at the Siege of Yorktown culminated in the surrender of General Charles Cornwallis. This ended the significant fighting of the war and led to negotiations that culminated in the Treaty of Paris (1783), which secured American independence from Great Britain.

AP US History

Definition

The British Southern Strategy was a plan to subdue the Southern Colonies, one by one, after the war in the Northern Theater of the American Revolutionary War settled into a stalemate. British leaders wrongly believed Loyalist support would secure control of Georgia and the Carolinas, but harsh British actions, strong Patriot resistance, and major defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens undermined their efforts. The strategy collapsed with Cornwallis’s retreat to Virginia and surrender at Yorktown, which led to the Treaty of Paris (1783) and recognition of American independence.

Alignment

The British Southern Strategy is part of the following units, topics, and chapters in the AP US History curriculum:

• The American Revolution (1754–1800)
• America Secedes from the Empire (1775–1783)