Cathay (Northern China)

Overview

Cathay was the European name for northern China from the 13th Century through until the 17th Century. It was popularized by Marco Polo’s account of his travels during the Yuan Dynasty. Polo’s descriptions of the region, influenced by Mongol culture and limited exploration of southern China, helped shape European expectations of Asia and inspired European explorers. After the overland route closed in the 14th Century, explorers like Christopher Columbus and John Cabot sought a western route to Cathay, which led them to the New World. The Portuguese reestablished contact in the 16th Century, but Ming China’s restrictions kept trade limited. Over time, “Cathay” became a romanticized image rather than an accurate geographic term.

Essential Facts

• Also Known As: China, Khitai.
• Part Of: Age of Exploration.

Key Details

• Cathay was the name Europeans used for China until the 17th Century.
• Marco Polo spent 17 years there (1275–1292) during the Yuan Dynasty and documented his experience in The Travels of Marco Polo.
• The overland route to China closed in the 14th Century due to the spread of disease (Black Death), and the Mongol Khans’ conversion to Islam reduced contact.
• In 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed westward in search of Cathay and the “Great Khan,” and Cipangu (Japan), but landed in the Americas.
• John Cabot sought Cathay in 1497 but reached Newfoundland.
• Portugal established trade relations with China in the late 15th Century
• The Ming Dynasty, which overthrew the Mongols, was more openly hostile to foreigners, which limited contact with the Western world until the mid-1800s.

Significance

Cathay is important to American History because it inspired European Adventurers to seek a western route to Asia, which led to the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus in 1492.

History

Marco Polo in China

Marco Polo was a Venetian traveler who journeyed with his father and uncle to the court of Khubilai Khan in Beijing, where he served in administrative roles for 17 years. His return to Venice in 1295 was followed by his capture and imprisonment in Genoa, where he dictated the story of his travels to Rustichello of Pisa. Although scholars debate the accuracy of his account, it influenced European geography and inspired European explorers to seek a westward passage to China.

• Polo was not the only European to travel to China in the 13th Century and early 14th Century, but his account was the most widely known.
• He spent 17 years in China (1275–1292), and his travels occurred during the early years of the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) and the rule of Kublai Khan.

Polo spent most of his time in northern China, and his narrative provided detailed descriptions of the region. In the north, the land was used to grow wheat, which was made into noodles, the staple of the Chinese diet.

• Around the time of Polo’s arrival, Kublai Khan conquered the Southern Sung Dynasty, but Polo probably did not travel extensively in southern China.
• Southern China was mountainous, tropical, urban, wealthy, and populous, with an economy based on wet rice farming.

Polo is believed to have served the Mongols, which likely influenced his account. He did not write or speak Chinese and used Persian or Mongolian words when he referred to various places:

• Canbalu for Beijing.
• Quinsai for Hangzhou (Hankow).
• Censcalan for Guangzhou (Canton).

AHC Notes

• Around 1297, Polo was in command of a ship that was captured at sea. Afterward, he was imprisoned in Genoa, where he met Rustichello of Pisa, a well-known writer.
• Marco and Rustichello collaborated on a book about Polo’s experiences.
• Marco dictated his account to Rustichello.
• Roughly 150 different versions of Polo’s account exist that were transcribed before the widespread use of the printing press.

Decline of European Contact with Cathay

In the 13th and 14th centuries, the Mongol Khans helped maintain safe passage along the Silk Road, which ran from China to Europe. This promoted trade and cultural exchange between the continents. This overland route was closed off in the 14th Century for two main reasons:

1. The Mongol Khans in Central Asia converted to Islam.
2. The Black Death spread out of Asia and devastated much of Europe.

Contact between Europe and China ended as a result of these events, and China’s culture continued to grow and change without European influence.

• In Europe, Marco Polo’s Cathay became more legend than reality.
• Portuguese and Spanish explorers reestablished contact in the 15th Century.
• Early explorers did not immediately recognize China as Marco Polo’s Cathay.
• Explorers searched for a legendary land or city of Cathay until the early 17th Century.

AHC Notes

• Black Death — Also known as the Plague, it was a devastating pandemic that swept across Europe in the 14th Century. It is believed to have originated in Asia and spread through trade routes, primarily carried by fleas on rats.

Christopher Columbus’s First Voyage

Christopher Columbus is believed to have read a secondhand account of Marco Polo’s journey, written by Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli.

• Columbus carried letters from King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella that were for the “Great Khan.”
• He brought an interpreter believed to be capable of speaking Chinese.
• In October 1492, he reached islands near the longitude described by Toscanelli.
• Toscanelli had severely underestimated the Earth’s circumference.
• Columbus believed he had reached Japan when he landed in the islands.
• Upon reaching the West Indies, he thought he might be on the Chinese coast.
• Columbus’s later voyages explored deeper into the Caribbean in search of Asia.

AHC Notes

• Ferdinand of Aragon (1452–1516) and Isabella of Castile (1451–1504) — Catholic monarchs whose marriage united Spain’s largest kingdoms, Castile and Aragon. They completed the Reconquista, enforced religious uniformity through the Inquisition, and expelled Jews and Muslims. They sponsored Columbus’s 1492 voyage, initiating Spain’s overseas empire. Their policies shaped early modern Spain and expanded European influence in the Americas.
• Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) — A Genoese navigator and explorer who completed four transatlantic voyages between 1492 and 1504 under the sponsorship of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Seeking a westward route to Asia, he instead reached the Caribbean, opening sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. His expeditions initiated European colonization but also led to the enslavement, exploitation, and suffering of native peoples, making him a figure of both global significance and lasting controversy. 
• Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli (1397–1482) — Toscanelli was an Italian mathematician, astronomer, and cosmographer who contributed to the early stages of the Age of Exploration. He is best known for a 1474 letter and map he sent to the Portuguese court proposing a westward sea route to Asia, which later influenced Christopher Columbus. Toscanelli believed the distance from Europe to Asia via the Atlantic was shorter than it actually is, due to his underestimation of Earth’s circumference and overestimation of Asia’s size. Although his ideas were flawed, they contributed to growing European interest in Atlantic navigation.

The Search for Cathay Expands

News of Columbus’s discovery quickly spread through Europe, and other explorers tried to reach Cathay by crossing the Atlantic.

• John Cabot sailed from Bristol, England, in 1497 to find Cathay.
• Cabot reached Newfoundland, which blocked the route to Asia.

Europeans gradually realized that a vast landmass stood between them and Asia.

• Ferdinand Magellan discovered a strait that ran from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific Ocean near the tip of South America in 1520. This passage is known as the “Strait of Magellan.”
• The English continued searching for a “Northwest Passage” through North America into the 19th Century. Richard Hakluyt the Elder believed that finding the Northwest Passage would bring honor to England, because it would benefit from trade with Japan and Cathay. 

AHC Notes

• Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480–1521) — A Portuguese explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe from 1519 to 1522 under the Spanish flag. Although he was killed in the Philippines, his voyage proved that the Earth could be circumnavigated by sea, linking Europe, the Americas, and Asia. The journey revealed the vastness of the Pacific Ocean and expanded European knowledge of global geography and trade routes.
• John Cabot (c.1450–c.1499) — A Venetian mariner who sailed for England under King Henry VII, Cabot is credited with the official European discovery of North America in 1497. Commanding the Matthew, he reached Newfoundland, believing it was part of Asia. He explored the coast briefly before returning to England. In 1498, he launched a second expedition with five ships, but all but one vanished without a trace. Cabot’s voyages provided England with its first claim to the New World.
• Bristol — An important English port city that became a center of foreign trade and exploration from the 15th to the 18th centuries. Bristol merchants traded with the Iberian Peninsula, Ireland, and Iceland, exporting goods like iron and timber while importing wines, fish, and luxury items. The city launched John and Sebastian Cabot’s 1497 voyage to Newfoundland and later supported promoters such as Richard Hakluyt, thereby maintaining a lasting role in England’s Atlantic expansion.
• Richard Hakluyt the Elder (1530–c. 1591) — A lawyer, geographer, and writer who helped lay the foundation for English colonization of North America.
• Northwest Passage — A legendary sea route through northern North America. During the Age of Exploration, it was widely believed that a water route existed that connected the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, allowing Europeans to reach Asia more quickly than traditional overland routes. Explorers sought the passage for more than 200 years, which contributed to the early exploration of North America and territorial claims of European nations along the Atlantic Coast.

Portuguese Contact with China

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reestablish contact with China after they rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1488.

• Successive Portuguese fleets carried explorers, traders, and adventurers.
• They built forts and trading “factories” along the east coast of Africa, India, and the “East Indies,” modern Indonesia and Malaysia, which were also known as the Spice Islands.
• In 1513–1514, Rafael Perestrello sailed a ship up the Pearl River into Guangzhou (Canton).
• Over the next seven years, two other Portuguese fleets visited China.
• These fleets engaged in some trade.
• The arrogance of their commanders and casual piracy damaged relations.
• This led to another 30-year break in contact between Portugal and China.

AHC Notes

• Spice Islands — Also known as the Maluku Islands, they are a group of islands near Indonesia that played an important role in the Spice Trade during the Age of Exploration because of the valuable spices grown there, such as nutmeg and pepper.

Ming China

Europeans reestablished regular contact with East Asia in the 15th Century. Over time, they came to understand that the China they were dealing with was much different than what Marco Polo had experienced.

• The Yuan Dynasty was overthrown in 1368 by the Ming Dynasty, which replaced the Mongol khans with native Chinese rulers.

Although the Ming Dynasty sent large fleets across the Indian Ocean and to the African coast in the 15th Century, its leaders promoted isolation. They believed China was culturally superior to other nations.

AHC Notes

• Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) — The second imperial dynasty of China, following the Qin Dynasty. Founded by Liu Bang, who became Emperor Gaozu, it is divided into two periods: Western Han (206 BC–9 AD) and Eastern Han (25–220 AD), separated by the short-lived Xin Dynasty. The Han era is considered a golden age in Chinese history, marked by territorial expansion, a strong centralized bureaucracy, and the institutionalization of Confucianism as the state philosophy. It oversaw innovations such as the civil service system, paper production, and advancements in science, medicine, and astronomy. The dynasty also established trade through the Silk Road, linking China to Central Asia and the Roman Empire. Internal corruption, peasant revolts, and pressure from nomadic groups like the Xiongnu contributed to its eventual decline.
• Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) — A Mongol dynasty established by Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, and marked the first time China was ruled by a non-Han Dynasty. As part of the Mongol Empire, the Yuan unified vast territories across Asia and adopted many Chinese systems of governance while maintaining Mongol military dominance. The dynasty centralized bureaucratic administration, expanded trade networks, and promoted religious tolerance. Under Yuan rule, the Silk Road flourished, which promoted the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures between Asia and Europe. The dynasty faced internal unrest and ethnic tensions, particularly between Mongols and the Chinese majority. The Yuan Dynasty ended when the Ming forces overthrew the Mongols in 1368.
• Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) — The Ming Dynasty succeeded the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty and was established by Zhu Yuanzhang, who became Emperor Hongwu. It marked a return to Han Chinese rule and focused on restoring native Chinese cultural and political traditions. The Ming government reinstated the civil service exam, rebuilt the Great Wall of China, and maintained a strong centralized bureaucracy. Economically, the dynasty saw growth in agriculture, manufacturing, and trade, especially with the rise of porcelain and silk exports. Notable achievements included Zheng He’s maritime voyages and the construction of the Forbidden City. Despite its prosperity, internal corruption, fiscal strain, and peasant uprisings weakened the state, leading to its fall and the Qing Dynasty’s rise.

Portuguese Macao

Around 1555, the Ming Dynasty allowed the Portuguese to take control of Macao in the Pearl River Delta, south of Guangzhou. From Macao, a profitable but limited trade developed, which continued until the early 17th Century. Macao remained under Portuguese control until 1999. 

• The Ming Dynasty’s fear of outsiders led to heavy restrictions on European visitors and immigrants.
• The number of Europeans in China was small.
• Few Europeans traveled beyond Macao or small factories in Canton.
• Some Jesuit missionaries, including Matteo Ricci, were able to travel in the Chinese interior and later reside in the capital.

AHC Notes

• Macao — Macao was a Portuguese colony located on the southern coast of China, near the Pearl River Delta. It was established as a permanent settlement by Portugal in 1557 with the approval of the Ming Dynasty, becoming the first European colony in East Asia. It served as a key port in the maritime Silk Road and facilitated trade between China, Japan, India, and Europe. It played a major role in the spread of Christianity in Asia, especially through the Jesuits. The colony was administered by Portugal until it was returned to China in 1999 under the “one country, two systems” framework. Historically, it represented a rare example of sustained East-West interaction during the early modern period.
• Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) — A Jesuit missionary who led the first successful mission to Ming China, arriving in 1582 and remaining there for 28 years. Ricci gained influence through his mastery of the Chinese language, scholarship, and diplomacy rather than military force. He introduced Western science and philosophy to Chinese scholars and officials, earning the respect of the imperial court. His writings fostered cultural exchange between China and Europe, making him a central figure in early global exploration and cross-cultural understanding.

England and the Company of Cathay

In 1577, Queen Elizabeth I chartered the Company of Cathay, which sought to find the Northwest Passage and mine gold ore from Baffin Island. Led by Martin Frobisher, the expeditions focused mainly on mining rather than exploration. Despite large investments and three voyages, the ore proved worthless. Operations cost thousands of pounds, and after five years of failure, the company declared bankruptcy in 1583, with the mined stone ultimately used for paving roads in England.

AHC Notes

• Queen Elizabeth I (1533–1603) — One of the most famous monarchs of England. She played an important role in the development of Colonial America by supporting Sir Walter Raleigh’s expeditions, which led to the founding of the Roanoke Island Colony, the first English settlement in North America.
• Martin Frobisher (1539–1594) — Frobisher was an English explorer, privateer, and naval officer who led three unsuccessful Arctic voyages in the 1570s in search of the Northwest Passage and gold. Though he failed to achieve these goals, his expeditions marked the first European contact with the Inuit and influenced later English exploration in the New World. Frobisher was one of Queen Elizabeth I’s “Sea Dogs.”
• Company of Cathay (1577–1583) — The Company of Cathay was an English joint stock company created to find the Northwest Passage and a western route to Cathay (China). The company was led by Martin Frobisher and was chartered by Queen Elizabeth I.

Misinterpretation of Marco Polo’s Cathay

Marco Polo’s outdated, Mongol-focused description of Cathay conflicted with the reality of the China that Europeans had rediscovered.

• Many Europeans believed Marco’s Cathay had not yet been found.
• Early European maps showed Portuguese-discovered Chinese lands separately from Cathay and Mangi.
• Mangi was the Mongol name for the recently conquered provinces of southern China.
• Some European geographers later concluded that Cathay was not a country but a city.
• In the 1600s, Bento de Goes, a Jesuit missionary, traveled across Asia and proved that China and Marco Polo’s “Cathay” were the same.

The Decline of “Cathay”

As knowledge of Chinese history expanded, Marco Polo’s account was generally accepted as true.

• Western contact with China remained limited until the mid-19th Century.
• The term “Cathay” continued to be used into the 20th Century.
• By then, it was more of a romanticized image than a geographic term.
• The word was used to recall Marco Polo’s hospitable China rather than the more complex, less welcoming reality that Westerners often faced.

AP US History Alignment

Cathay is part of the following units, topics, and chapters in the AP US History curriculum:

• Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest (APUSH 1.4)
• New World Beginnings (33000 B.C.–1769)

Definition

Cathay — The medieval name used by Europeans to describe northern China, which was described as a land of great wealth and exotic goods. Popularized by Marco Polo’s account of his time in China, it inspired European explorers to find a westward passage to the Far East, which led them to the Americas during the Age of Exploration.

Terms

These are additional terms and definitions related to Cathay during the Age of Exploration.

Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227) — Named Temüjin at birth, Genghis Khan was the founder and first Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in world history. Unifying Mongol and Turkic tribes, he launched military campaigns across Asia and Europe, conquering vast territories and establishing a powerful, centralized state through the implementation of a strict legal code called the “Yassa.” Genghis secured trade routes along the Silk Road, which promoted cultural and economic exchange. His legacy reshaped Eurasian civilizations through warfare, diplomacy, and the integration of diverse cultures under his rule.

Kublai Khan (1215–1294) — He was the fifth Khagan of the Mongol Empire and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China. As the grandson of Genghis Khan, he completed the Mongol conquest of China and established himself as Emperor in 1271. He relocated the Mongol capital to Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) and ruled a multicultural empire that blended Chinese administrative practices with Mongol traditions. He promoted trade, supported the Silk Road, and welcomed foreign travelers such as Marco Polo. Despite his efforts, the empire under his rule started to fragment. His reign marked the height of Mongol power in East Asia and the first time someone outside the Han Dynasty ruled China.

Mongol Empire — The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Founded by Genghis Khan in 1206, it expanded across Asia and into Eastern Europe through military conquest, incorporating China, Central Asia, the Middle East, and parts of Europe. The Mongols employed highly organized cavalry, psychological warfare, and siege tactics. After Genghis Khan’s death, the empire was divided into four Khanates: the Yuan Dynasty (China), the Golden Horde  (Russia), the Chagatai Khanate (Central Asia), and the Ilkhanate (Middle East). The Empire promoted trade, communication, and cultural exchange along the Silk Road, creating a period of relative peace known as the “Pax Mongolica.” This also contributed to the spread of the Black Death (bubonic plague) from Asia to Europe. Internal conflicts contributed to the Empire’s collapse.

Pax Mongolica — Also known as the “Mongol Peace,” it refers to the period of stability, law, and economic growth across Eurasia during the 13th and 14th centuries under the rule of the Mongol Empire. Following the conquests of Genghis Khan and his successors, the Mongols unified a vast territory stretching from China to Eastern Europe. This promoted safe and efficient trade along the Silk Road, allowing for increased cultural exchange, the movement of goods, and the spread of technologies and ideas. Merchants, travelers, and diplomats could move freely under the Empire’s protection, benefiting from standardized laws and enforced security. Pax Mongolica helped connect the East and West and laid the groundwork for the Age of Exploration.

Silk Road — The Silk Road was a vast network of trade routes that connected East Asia with the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe, from roughly 130 AD to the 1450s. It facilitated the exchange of goods like silk, spices, precious metals, and glassware, as well as cultural, religious, and technological ideas. The route stretched over 4,000 miles, from China to Mediterranean ports. It was not a single road but a collection of overland trails and water routes. The Silk Road peaked during the Tang, Yuan, and Mongol periods, especially under the “Pax Mongolica,” when trade and travel became safer. It helped shape the economic and cultural landscape of Europe and Asia until its use declined after the rise of maritime trade.