American Society and Culture in the Colonial Era
From 1607 to 1754, the British Colonies slowly developed. In the early years, they were divided by distance, mountain ranges, rivers, and colonies established by other European nations. Over time, Britain acquired these colonies and established control over most of the Atlantic Coast. In 1732, Georgia became the last of the 13 Original Colonies to be established.
By 1754, a truly “American” culture and society had developed, driven by the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment. Ideas from these revolutions reached America in the form of books and immigrants who embraced the ideals of Religious Freedom.
While Americans embraced key aspects of British “consumer culture,” they were agitated by the government’s political and economic policies that restricted trade and manufacturing. Further, the British viewed Americans as second-class citizens, which created animosity and distrust.
Eventually, the intellectual exchange created a divide between Americans and British officials. Americans came to view the British government as corrupt and self-serving. On the other hand, British officials continued to see the Colonies as key pieces in an economic system that drove their Empire.
British Mercantile System
During the 17th and 18th centuries, Great Britain expanded its empire by following the economic system called Mercantilism. Under this system, the American Colonies were:
- A significant source of natural resources, including timber, indigo, and furs, used by British merchants to manufacture finished products, including clothes.
- The primary market for British merchants to sell their finished products.
American merchants benefitted from the Mercantile System but also sought work outside of it to maximize their own profits. This led them to create trade relationships with nations outside of the British Empire, including France and Spain, who were often at war with Britain.
Navigation Acts
In 1651, Parliament started expanding the laws that governed trade within the Empire, known as the Navigation Acts. Under these laws, merchants paid duties — or taxes — on shipments of goods and were assessed fines for violating the rules. The taxes were intended to control shipping, not generate revenue for the British Treasury. However, the Navigation Acts contributed to conflicts with Britain’s economic rivals, including the First Anglo-Dutch War, the French and Indian Wars, and the War of Jenkins’ Ear.
American Democracy
As the Colonies matured, American commerce expanded. At the same time, local politics developed through democracy, creating an American identity with Town Halls, County Meetings, and legislatures like the Virginia House of Burgesses.
The Restoration Colonies
Following the Stuart Restoration, King Charles II became King of England. Colonial America expanded with the “Restoration Colonies” — Pennsylvania, Carolina, New York, and New Jersey — and entered a new era of political and economic oversight. In 1675, the Lords of Trade and Plantation was established to oversee imperial commerce. Around the same time, Virginia was torn apart by Bacon’s Rebellion. Charles responded by sending British troops to restore order.
Immigration, Culture, and Religion
As wars over royal succession and religious authority continued to plague Britain and Western Europe, people fled to America. This contributed to a growing population of people who came from different cultural and religious backgrounds, including Germans, Scots-Irish, and Jews. Religious Toleration was practiced in many places, allowing Catholics, Quakers, Baptists, and Huguenots to find refuge from persecution.
Following Bacon’s Rebellion, changes to Virginia laws led to an increase in the importation of captive Africans who were enslaved. This created an entirely African American subculture that developed its own unique characteristics.
Slowly, Britain added more laws to maintain the Mercantile System. It restricted manufacturing in the Colonies and limited trade between them to ensure they remained dependent on goods and products manufactured in Britain. During this time, the New England Colonies, especially Massachusetts, gained a reputation for ignoring the Navigation Acts and other laws.
King Charles II died in 1685 and was succeeded by his brother, who became King James II. A year later, James decided to revoke the charters of the New England Colonies and merge them into a single government called the “Dominion of New England.” The second Governor of the Dominion, Sir Edmund Andros, was unpopular, as was James.
Glorious Revolution
In 1689, a revolt took place in England. Parliament removed James from the throne and replaced him with his son-in-law, William of Orange, and his daughter, Mary. This “Glorious Revolution” led to various revolts in the Colonies, including Leisler’s Rebellion, Coode’s Rebellion, and the Boston Revolt. The people of Massachusetts removed Andros as governor, and the New England Colonies restored their charters.
The Glorious Revolution also changed the structure of British politics. William and Mary agreed to the English Bill of Rights, which placed Parliament above the monarchy. The Bill of Rights was an important document that was considered part of the British Constitution.
Despite the political and economic oversight, it was difficult for British officials to enforce the Navigation Acts. Following the Glorious Revolution, Britain was often distracted by wars in Europe.
Many American merchants were savvy businessmen and took advantage of the situation by trading with merchants outside of the British Empire. Although they blatantly violated the Navigation Acts, Prime Minister Robert Walpole believed it was in Britain’s best interest to maintain peaceful relations with the Colonies and focus on issues in Europe. This unwritten policy is called “Salutary Neglect.” It led to an increase in smuggling — illegal trade — and bribery. It also led to economic growth and prosperity in America — and an increased sense of economic independence.
Wars for Control of North America
At the end of the 17th Century, European wars started to expand to North America. The Americans, French, and Spanish clashed, and Native American Indians, including the Iroquois Confederacy and the Wabanaki Confederacy, were often involved.
British officers and troops were sent to North America to carry out military campaigns. Americans often fought with them, but the British looked down on them as second-class citizens. Because of this, Americans developed a resentment toward the British military that lasted well past the War of 1812.
These wars also created something entirely new — the first American military heroes. The most famous of them are Israel Putnam and Robert Rogers. However, these wars were also a training ground for important leaders of the American Revolutionary War, including George Washington and John Stark.
Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment in Europe
The Scientific Revolution, which grew out of the Renaissance, challenged Old World views on mathematics and science.
It contributed to the Age of Exploration, which led Europeans to the New World, and to Isaac Newton’s studies, including the Law of Gravity, which was published in 1687.
Philosophers like John Locke, influenced by Newton and Francis Bacon, applied a similar approach to culture, religion, and society. This movement, known as the “Enlightenment,” reshaped views on humanity and its relationship with nature.
Board of Trade
In 1696, King William II established a new governing body, the Lords Commissioners of Trade and Plantations, commonly known as the “Board of Trade,” to oversee colonial affairs. As Parliament passed legislation dealing with the American Colonies, the Board of Trade’s responsibilities expanded.
One of its first important decisions affecting Americans was the establishment of Vice Admiralty Courts. These were separate from the regular legal system and used to hear cases regarding violations of the Navigation Acts. They did not use juries, and decisions were rendered by a judge. Over time, Americans viewed these courts as unconstitutional and corrupt.
Cato’s Letters
From 1720 to 1723, British philosophers John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon, influenced by the Enlightenment, wrote a series of political essays critiquing the government for abusing its power at the people’s expense. The lengthy essays were published in colonial newspapers and in books titled “Cato’s Letters.” The essays helped shape social, political, and religious thought in the Colonies and influenced men like Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Thomas Paine.
Molasses Act (1733)
The Molasses Act was passed in 1733, requiring American merchants to buy molasses from the British West Indies, which was used to make rum. Americans resented it because:
- British molasses was more expensive.
- The plantations were unable to meet their demands.
- Parliament favored the British plantation owners over American merchants.
Rum was essential to New England’s participation in the Triangular Trade, so Americans increased their practices of smuggling molasses and bribing customs officials.
America’s Consumer Revolution
Although many Americans resented the Navigation Acts and other restrictions, they also benefitted from being an important part of the British Empire, including:
- A monopoly on the production of tobacco, indigo, and other items that could only be produced in America.
- Rebates on shipments of goods imported from England.
- Military protection from enemies.
These advantages allowed Americans to enjoy the luxuries of British society, including manufactured clothes, furniture, and books. As the colonies underwent a consumer revolution, an intellectual revolution started to emerge, driven by the establishment of printing presses and newspapers.
Despite the advantages, British officials continued to regard Americans as second-class citizens. They were rarely viewed as social, political, or intellectual equals.
Social Classes in Colonial America
Social classes slowly developed in America as the Colonies approached the middle of the 18th Century. While some wealthy Americans immersed themselves in “consumer culture,” the vast majority of them remained tied to subsistence living and agriculture, especially as the colonies expanded west toward the Allegheny Mountains.
The Great Awakening
The Great Awakening was a religious movement that took place in the American Colonies during the first part of the 18th century. It is most well-known for emphasizing spiritual devotion, individualism, and freedom, which contributed to the ideals of the American Revolution.
The movement came at a time when church attendance was dwindling, and many ministers cited Americans’ new consumer lifestyle as a cause. It was a response to the growing influence of the Enlightenment and the emphasis on reason and rationalism, which led to the idea that a person’s destiny was not pre-ordained by God — Predestination — or controlled by churches and monarchs.
The Great Awakening was the first movement shared by all the colonies, helping transform colonial society and establishing a common “American” identity. It rejected traditional Calvinist ideas that God only provided salvation to an “elected” group, such as the Puritans, and challenged the idea that the Pope or the King of England stood between the individual and God. It renewed interest in Christianity, resulting in increased church attendance and conversions.
It led to the formation of “New Lights” (embracing revivalist ideas) and “Old Lights” (adhering to traditional practices) within religious communities. Prominent leaders were George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards.
American Unity Considered
On the eve of the French and Indian War, the Board of Trade ordered colonial leaders to meet in Albany, New York. The primary purpose of the Albany Congress was to restore the alliance between New York and the Iroquois Confederacy, which was successfully completed. Afterward, Benjamin Franklin proposed the “Albany Plan of Union.” For the first time, a unified colonial government was proposed. Although it was rejected by the colonial governments and British officials, it was an important step forward in American political development.
Topic 2.7 Review Video
This video from Heimler’s History provides an excellent overview of APUSH 2.7. You can also check out our APUSH Guide, which provides a look at all Units and Topics in the APUSH Curriculum.
Topic 2.7 Vocabulary and Notes
The following terms and definitions relate to the Key Concepts for Unit 2 and are broken into sections by APUSH Themes. Within the explanations of APUSH 2.7, Terms are links to content on American History Central that should provide a more comprehensive understanding of each topic.
Unit 2 Key Concepts
Key Concept 2.1 — Europeans developed a variety of colonization and migration patterns, influenced by different imperial goals, cultures, and the varied North American environments where they settled, and they competed with each other and American Indians for resources.
Key Concept 2.2 — The British colonies participated in political, social, cultural, and economic exchanges with Great Britain that encouraged both stronger bonds with Britain and resistance to Britain’s control.
APUSH Themes
- American and National Identity
- Work, Exchange, and Technology
- Migration and Settlement
- Politics and Power
- America in the World
- Geography and the Environment
- Culture and Society
American and National Identity
American Philosophical Society
Benjamin Franklin helped start the American Philosophical Society in 1743. The Society is a scholarly organization founded to promote knowledge in the humanities and the natural sciences. Francis Hopkinson was also a founder, and members included George Washington, John Dickinson, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Paine, Benjamin Rush, James Madison, and John Marshall.
Newspapers and Print Culture
Newspaper and print culture played a transformative role in colonial society. The first American newspaper published on a regular basis was Publick Occurrences Both Foreign and Domestick, which started in 1690. By the mid-18th century, newspapers were widely circulated, providing information on local events, trade, politics, and culture. Print culture also facilitated the spread of ideas and influenced public opinion, contributing to the growth of a colonial public sphere and setting the stage for the exchange of revolutionary ideas that would lead to the American Revolution. Pamphlets and Broadsides were also used to distribute information during the Colonial Era.
Pennsylvania Gazette
The Pennsylvania Gazette was Benjamin Franklin’s newspaper. Franklin printed his famous “Join or Die” political cartoon in the Gazette, which supported the Patriot Cause during the American Revolution. Among the key documents printed in the Gazette were the Philadelphia Resolutions Against the Tea Act (1773).
American and National Identity — Religion
Deism
Deism is a belief system that emphasizes reason and science. Many Founding Fathers, including Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin, embraced Deism. Some rejected key concepts of Christianity but believed in a Supreme Being. Deism was essential to Thomas Paine’s The Age of Reason (1794), which criticized churches, claiming they were created to control and profit from people.
Edict of Nantes
The French Crown issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598. It granted limited toleration to French Protestants, known as Huguenots, ending the Wars of Religion that had plagued the country. Afterward, France entered a new era of stability and prosperity. The 17th Century saw France emerge as the most powerful and feared nation in Europe, led by a series of capable ministers and King Louis XIV. In 1685, the Edict of Nantes was revoked by the Edict of Fontainebleau. The Huguenots were forced to convert to Catholicism, go to prison for life, or leave France. An estimated 400,000 Huguenots left France. Some found refuge in England before finally settling in the American Colonies.
Flushing Remonstrance
The Flushing Remonstrance was a 1657 petition written by people living in New Amsterdam to Governor Peter Stuyvesant, asking him to lift his restrictions on Quakers. The document is viewed as vital to the establishment of Religious Freedom in America.
Maryland Act of Toleration
The Maryland Act of Toleration, enacted in 1649, was a colonial law in the Province of Maryland that provided religious freedom and protection to Christians of various denominations, including Catholics and Protestants. It was one of the earliest legislative acts in the English colonies that promoted religious tolerance, aiming to prevent conflicts between different Christian groups. However, this act did not extend religious freedom to non-Christians.
Original Sin
Original sin is a Christian doctrine that asserts that all humans inherit a sinful nature as a result of Adam and Eve’s disobedience in the Garden of Eden. According to this belief, sinfulness is a universal condition from birth, and it separates humanity from God. The concept of original sin has been especially prominent in Western Christian traditions, including Catholicism and various Protestant denominations, influencing their views on salvation and the need for redemption through faith in Jesus Christ.
Predestination
Predestination is a theological doctrine associated with Calvinism, which asserts that God has already determined the eternal fate of individuals — whether they will be saved or damned — before they are born. It is a controversial and complex theological concept that emphasizes God’s sovereignty in salvation. Predestination has been a subject of debate and discussion within Christian theology for centuries.
Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation, which began in the early 16th century, was a religious and social movement that challenged the doctrines and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. It led to the establishment of various Protestant denominations and significantly altered the religious landscape in Europe. Key figures such as Martin Luther and John Calvin played pivotal roles in the Reformation, which was marked by theological debates, the translation of the Bible into vernacular languages, and the emergence of new religious traditions.
Religious Pluralism
Religious Pluralism refers to the acceptance and coexistence of multiple religious beliefs and practices within a society. In Colonial America, it promoted tolerance and diversity, particularly in regions like Pennsylvania.
American and National Identity — Religious Denominations
Anglican Church — High Chuch and Low Church Factions
The High Church and Low Church factions of the Church of England (Anglican Church) developed during the Enlightenment. The High Church followed a strict interpretation of Anglican theology and was led by Archbishop William Laud. The Low Church embraced the more liberal views of the Enlightenment, and its members were referred to as Latitudinarians.
Dunkers
Dunkers, or German Baptist Brethren, were a religious group in Colonial America who practiced adult baptism by immersion. Known for their pacifism and simple living, they settled primarily in Pennsylvania.
Huguenots
Huguenots were members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France during the 16th and 17th centuries. They faced persecution due to their religious beliefs, leading many to flee France in search of religious freedom and safety. Huguenot immigrants settled in various countries, including England, the Netherlands, and the American Colonies. Many settled in New Netherland, which later became New York.
Mennonites
Mennonites were a Protestant sect in Colonial America, originating from the Anabaptist movement in Europe. Known for their pacifism, simple lifestyle, and communal living, many settled in Pennsylvania for religious freedom.
Moravians
Moravians were a Protestant denomination originating from Central Europe. In Colonial America, they established settlements such as Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, focusing on missionary work, community, and simple living.
Quakers
Quakers, also known as the Religious Society of Friends, were a Protestant religious group that emerged in England during the 17th century. Quakers emphasized direct spiritual experience, inner light, and social equality. They were persecuted for their beliefs in England and sought refuge in various colonial regions, including Pennsylvania, where founder William Penn established a colony with religious freedom as a guiding principle.
Sephardic Jews
Sephardic Jews were descendants of Jews expelled from Spain and Portugal during the Inquisition. In Colonial America, they settled in cities like New York and Charleston, contributing to early Jewish communities and trade.
Work, Exchange, and Technology — Labor Systems
Headright System
The Headright System was used in the English colonies in the 17th and 18th centuries to encourage settlement and to allocate land. Under the headright system, individuals who paid for their own passage to the colonies or who brought indentured servants with them were entitled to a grant of land. The size of the grant depended on the number of people the individual brought with them. The Headright System was a way for the colonial authorities to encourage immigration and was a key factor in the rapid population growth of the colonies.
Indentured Servants
Indentured Servants were individuals who agreed to work for a fixed period of time, usually four to seven years, in exchange for passage to the colonies. Indentured Servants were a common labor force in the English colonies in the 17th and 18th centuries, and many of the early settlers in the colonies were indentured servants. The system exploited some workers, as Indentured Servants were often not paid and were subject to harsh working conditions.
Slavery
Slavery is the practice of owning and controlling people as property, often for the purpose of forced labor. Slavery was practiced in the English colonies in North America from the early 17th century onwards and played a significant role in the economy of the colonies. Slaves were brought to the colonies from Africa and other parts of the world and were often subjected to brutal treatment and exploitation. The abolition of slavery in the United States was a major issue in the 19th century and played a key role in the Civil War.
Triangular Trade
Triangular Trade was a system of trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas that developed in the 17th and 18th centuries. Under the triangular trade system, European traders would bring manufactured goods to Africa, where they would be exchanged for slaves. The slaves would then be transported to the Americas, where they were sold and used to work on plantations and in mines. The profits from the sale of the slaves were then used to purchase raw materials, such as sugar, tobacco, and cotton, which were then shipped back to Europe.
Migration and Settlement
Redemptioners
Redemptioners were European immigrants, primarily from Germany and Switzerland, who arrived in Colonial America during the 18th century. Unlike traditional Indentured Servants, Redemptioners agreed to work for a specified period to pay off their passage to America. However, they were not bound to a specific master but instead were sold at auction upon arrival. This system provided a means for immigrants to gain passage to America but often resulted in harsh working conditions and limited opportunities for advancement.
Pennsylvania Dutch
The term “Pennsylvania Dutch” refers to a group of German-speaking immigrants who settled in Pennsylvania during the 17th and 18th centuries. Despite the name, they were not Dutch but rather predominantly German, originating from regions such as the Palatinate and other parts of present-day Germany. Known for their agricultural skills, craftsmanship, and distinctive cultural practices, the Pennsylvania Dutch had a lasting impact on the region’s culture and heritage.
Scottish Highlanders
Scottish Highlanders were inhabitants of the Scottish Highlands, a rugged and mountainous region in northern Scotland. Many Highlanders emigrated to various parts of the world, including North America. Highland Scots played roles in the early colonization of areas such as North Carolina, where their cultural traditions and skills in agriculture and animal husbandry influenced local communities. Highland Scots were involved in the Second Jacobite Rebellion (1745–1746). Following the defeat of Bonnie Prince Charlie and the Jacobite Army at the Battle of Culloden (April 16, 1746), many Highlanders fled to America.
Politics and Power — Key Events
Bacon’s Rebellion
Bacon’s Rebellion was a significant uprising that took place in 1676 in the Virginia Colony. Led by Nathaniel Bacon, a Virginia planter, the rebellion was sparked by grievances against colonial elites and perceived injustices in the colony’s governance led by Governor William Berkeley. The rebels, composed of indentured servants, poor farmers, and slaves, attacked Indian villages and challenged the authority of colonial leaders. The rebellion highlighted class tensions and issues related to land ownership, labor, and governance in the early colonial period. In the aftermath of the rebellion, Virginia plantation owners transitioned their workforce from Indentured Servants to African slaves.
Boston Revolt
The Boston Revolt took place in the wake of the Glorious Revolution. After King James II was forced to flee England, he was replaced on the throne by King William III and Queen Mary II, and the English Bill of Rights and the Act of Toleration were passed. When the news reached Boston, the people arrested Andros and threw him in prison, effectively ending the Dominion of New England.
Coode’s Rebellion
Coode’s Rebellion took place in the Province of Maryland, starting in 1689. It led to the establishment of a Protestant government and placed the colony under the control of the Crown until 1715.
Culpeper’s Rebellion
Culpeper’s Rebellion was a short-lived revolt against taxation and oppressive government in the Albemarle Sound region of the Province of Carolina. The rebels controlled the colony for about two years before the government was restored to control of the Lords Proprietors of Carolina.
King Philip’s War
King Philip’s War (1675–1678) was fought between the English Colonies in New England and Native American Indian Tribes in the region.
King William’s War
King William’s War (1688–1697) was the first conflict in North America between England, France, and their respective Native American Indian allies. There was no clear victor in the war, which was an extension of the Nine Years’ War. However, it set the stage for future conflicts in North America between the European powers as they fought for control of the Fur Trade and dominance of the continent.
Leisler’s Rebellion
Leisler’s Rebellion (1689–1691) was an uprising by the Dutch inhabitants of New York who wanted to escape from the rule of the Dominion of New England following the Glorious Revolution in England. The rebellion ultimately failed and led to the appointment of a Royal Governor in New York.
Salem Witch Trials
The Salem Witch Trials were a series of witchcraft trials and prosecutions that took place in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692–1693. A wave of mass hysteria led to accusations of witchcraft against numerous individuals, predominantly women. The trials resulted in the execution of 20 people before they were ended when Cotton Mather denounced the use of spectral evidence. Governor William Phipps also dissolved the court that conducted the trials, moved the remaining trials to another court, and pardoned anyone who was accused of witchcraft.
Stuart Restoration
From 1642 to 1651, England was caught up in a civil between supporters of Parliament, known as Parliamentarians, and supporters of the King, known as Royalists. At the center of the dispute was Parliament’s intention to limit the power of King Charles I. In 1649, the Parliamentarians, led by Oliver Cromwell, took control of England. Cromwell died in 1658, and the Parliamentarians struggled to retain control. The era, known as the Interregnum, ended in 1660 when the monarchy was restored and King Charles II took the throne.
Zenger Trial
In 1734–1735, the political landscape changed when John Peter Zenger, the printer of the recently established New York Weekly Journal, a newspaper associated with the Country faction, published articles that were critical of Cosby’s administration. Governor William Cosby, who was aligned with the Court faction, responded by arresting Zenger on charges of libel. However, a jury acquitted Zenger in a famous court case that helped establish the concept of Freedom of the Press.
Politics and Power — British Imperial Policies
Enumerated Goods
Enumerated goods were specific products that were allowed to be exported only to British markets, as mandated by the Navigation Acts. These goods included commodities such as tobacco, sugar, cotton, and indigo. The purpose of the enumeration was to ensure that certain colonial industries remained under British control and to limit competition with British manufacturers. This policy contributed to tensions between the American colonies and Britain, which led to the American Revolution.
Mercantilism
Mercantilism was an economic theory and policy that dominated European thinking in the 16th to 18th centuries. It emphasized the idea that a nation’s wealth and power were determined by its accumulation of precious metals, primarily gold and silver. To achieve this, mercantilist governments sought to maintain a favorable balance of trade by exporting more than they imported, establishing colonies to provide raw materials, and enacting protectionist measures like tariffs and monopolies. Mercantilism had a profound influence on colonial economic policies and contributed to tensions between American colonies and Britain, which sought to extract economic benefits from its colonial possessions.
Salutary Neglect
Salutary Neglect was a policy of British non-interference in the internal affairs of its American colonies during the 17th and early 18th centuries. This policy allowed the American colonies a degree of self-governance and economic freedom. While British laws were technically in place, they were often loosely enforced, leading to a sense of autonomy among colonial governments and businesses. Salutary neglect encouraged self-reliance and self-government in the colonies, but it eventually ended with increased British control and regulation, contributing to colonial discontent and the American Revolution.
Politics and Power — British Laws
Hat Act (1732)
The Hat Act of 1732 was aimed at protecting the hat-making industry in Britain by regulating the production and export of hats from the American Colonies. The act required that all hats made in the colonies for export be sent to Britain for inspection and approval by British officials before being sold in other markets. This restriction limited the ability of colonial hat-makers to compete with their English counterparts and contributed to growing resentment among Colonial Artisans against British trade regulations.
Debt Recovery Act (1732)
The Debt Recovery Act of 1732 was enacted to improve debt collection in the American Colonies. It allowed creditors to seize both real and personal property of debtors who defaulted on their payments. This act was intended to protect the interests of British merchants and creditors by ensuring they could recover debts owed by colonial planters and merchants. The law contributed to economic tensions between the colonies and Britain, as it placed significant financial strain on colonial debtors and was seen as an example of British overreach into colonial affairs.
English Bill of Rights (1689)
The English Bill of Rights, enacted in 1689, was a landmark document in English political history. It established limitations on the powers of the monarchy and affirmed certain rights of Parliament and individual citizens. The Bill of Rights affirmed the right to petition the Crown, the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment, and the right to bear arms for self-defense, among other provisions. It significantly influenced the development of constitutional principles and laid the foundation for democratic governance in Britain and the American Colonies.
Iron Act (1750)
The Iron Act of 1750 regulated the iron industry in the American Colonies. It aimed to restrict the production of iron goods in the colonies by prohibiting the construction of new iron forges and mills and the expansion of existing ones. The act was intended to ensure that the colonies remained dependent on Britain for manufactured iron goods.
Molasses Act (1733)
The Molasses Act of 1733 was a piece of British legislation that imposed high import duties on molasses, rum, and sugar imported into the American colonies from non-British Caribbean sources, primarily the French West Indies. The act aimed to protect the sugar plantations in the British West Indies and generate revenue for the British Crown. However, it was widely evaded through smuggling and was deeply unpopular among colonial merchants, contributing to the rise of illicit trade and colonial opposition to British economic policies. However, the unwritten policy of Salutary Neglect contributed to lax enforcement of the law’s provisions.
Navigation Acts
The Navigation Acts were a series of British laws passed in the 17th and 18th centuries to regulate colonial trade and ensure that most of it benefited the British Empire. These acts required that certain colonial goods could only be transported in British ships, that goods bound for the colonies had to pass through British ports, and that certain key exports (like tobacco and sugar) could only be sold to Britain. These measures were intended to maintain British economic dominance over the American colonies but also generated tension and resentment, ultimately contributing to colonial discontent that led to the American Revolution.
Wool Act (1699)
The Wool Act of 1699 was a British law that aimed to protect the woolen industry in Britain by restricting the export of woolen goods from the American Colonies. The act prohibited the export of woolen cloth from the colonies to any destination other than Britain or other English territories. This legislation was part of the Mercantile System implemented by Britain to ensure that colonial trade benefited the mother country’s economy.
Politics and Power — British Imperial Control
Charter Colonies
Charter Colonies were a type of colonial government established in the American Colonies during the 17th century. In this system, colonies were granted a charter by the British Crown, outlining the colony’s government structure, rights, and responsibilities. Unlike Proprietary Colonies, which were owned by individuals or companies, Charter Colonies had more autonomy and self-governance, as they were typically governed by elected Colonial Assemblies. This system allowed for greater local control and helped develop colonial governance in America.
Dominion of New England
The Dominion of New England was a short-lived administrative union of several English colonies in North America, established by King James II in 1686. It aimed to strengthen royal control over the colonies by centralizing governance under a single authority. Sir Edmund Andros was appointed as governor-general to oversee the Dominion. The Dominion included colonies such as Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and later New York and New Jersey. However, the Dominion faced strong opposition from colonists due to its authoritarian policies, including the enforcement of the Navigation Acts and the suppression of local assemblies. It was overthrown following the Glorious Revolution in 1689.
Proprietary Colonies
Proprietary Colonies were a form of colonial government in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries. Under this system, the British Crown granted land and governing rights to individuals or groups known as Proprietors. Proprietors were given considerable control over the colony, including the ability to establish laws, appoint officials, and administer land. Examples of proprietary colonies included Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. While the Proprietors enjoyed certain privileges, they were still subject to the authority of the British Crown and were expected to govern following English law.
Royal Colonies
Royal Colonies were a type of colonial administration in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries. In these colonies, the British Crown retained direct control over governance and administration. The Crown appointed a Royal Governor to oversee the colony, often with the assistance of a Governor’s Council. The Governor had significant powers, including the authority to enact laws, levy taxes, and command the colonial militia. By the time of the American Revolution, nearly all the American Colonies were Royal Colonies. Pennsylvania and Maryland remained Proprietary Colonies.
Politics and Power — Government Systems
House of Burgesses
The House of Burgesses was established in 1619 in Virginia. It was the first legislative assembly in the English Colonies in North America and was a significant step towards representative self-governance. Elected by male property owners, the “Burgesses” were responsible for passing laws, regulating local affairs, and interacting with the Governor and the Council. However, the assembly was dominated by wealthy planters who often crafted laws for their own benefit. This was one of the causes of Bacon’s Rebellion.
New England Town Meetings
New England Town Meetings were democratic gatherings that allowed local residents to participate in the decision-making process of their communities. These meetings, often held in the town’s meetinghouse, enabled residents to discuss and vote on various matters, such as local ordinances, budgets, and elections. New England Town Meetings promoted direct participation in governance and fostered a sense of civic responsibility among the colonists. These meetings created a tradition of participatory democracy in communities that continues today.
Culture and Society — People
Nathaniel Bacon
Nathaniel Bacon was a Virginia planter and leader of Bacon’s Rebellion, a revolt against the colonial government led by Governor William Berkeley. Bacon and his followers, frustrated with Berkeley’s policies towards Native American Indians and perceived corruption, took up arms, attacked Indian tribes, seized the colony, and burned Jamestown. The rebellion was suppressed after Bacon died from dysentery.
Jonathan Edwards
Jonathan Edwards was a Connecticut preacher whose ideology was influenced by John Locke and Isaac Newton. Edwards was inspired to hold revivals and deliver powerful sermons by Gilbert Tennant and George Whitefield. His famous sermon Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God was known to cause strong emotional reactions in his audience. See Sermons in Colonial America.
Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes was a philosopher who promoted the idea that a social contract existed between the government and the people. Under this contract, the people sacrificed freedom and liberty to the government in return for safety. Hobbes supported concepts such as the Divine Right of Kings. His most influential work, Leviathan, was published in 1651.
John Locke
John Locke was an English philosopher who believed people learned from experience. He articulated this belief in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. In Two Treatises of Government, Locke rejected the Divine Right of Kings and proposed that government should exist for the benefit of the people. He also argued that a government that failed to represent the people should be overthrown. Locke was also involved in the development of the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina, which was rejected by the colonial assembly.
Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton was an English philosopher and scientist. Newton played an important role in the development of calculus and formulated the Laws of Motion.
Voltaire
Voltaire was a French philosopher during the Enlightenment. He was known as an advocate of key concepts framed in the U.S. Constitution — Free Speech, Freedom of Religion, and Separation of Church and State.
Robert Walpole
Robert Walpole was a British politician who is often regarded as the first Prime Minister of Great Britain. He served as Prime Minister from 1721 to 1742 and held influence over British politics in the early 18th century. Walpole was a member of the Whig Party and is known for stabilizing the British government and promoting economic growth. He pursued a policy of moderation and compromise, seeking to maintain stability and avoid costly foreign entanglements. In American History, he is recognized for the unwritten policy of Salutary Neglect, which eased the enforcement of British laws in the American Colonies.
George Whitefield
George Whitefield was an English preacher who held revivals throughout the American Colonies during the Great Awakening. Whitefield was influenced by John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, and his brother, Charles Wesley.
