APUSH Chapter 5, Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution

Colonial America in the Mid-18th Century

From 1607 to 1775, Great Britain established roughly 32 colonies in North America. In addition to the 13 Original Colonies, there were colonies in Canada, Florida, and the West Indies. Although the Navigation Acts applied to all of these colonies, the American Colonies were the ones that felt the most oppressed by British economic policies.

Over time, the development of democratic principles in America was driven by the desire for prosperity and freedom. The geography of the colonies — from waterways to mountains to plains — and the rich ethnic culture — including religion and folkways — contributed to the development of the political structure in America. However, American political thought was strongly rooted in the British Constitution, a loose collection of documents that established British law.

The gradual spread of education and the development of professional doctors and lawyers helped lay a foundation for a business class that was able to take the lead during the American Revolution. However, religion also played a role when the Great Awakening swept through the colonies and started to create a uniquely “American” way of thinking. While many of the principles were rooted in religion, they were also rooted in the natural rights of mankind.

Despite a growing sense of economic and intellectual unity, the colonies still operated independently of each other. They sought to protect their own interests ahead of the other colonies, and even those of Britain.

By the mid-1750s, Britain and France had already fought three wars in North America and a fourth was on the horizon. At the time, colonial society was still largely connected to its European roots. Unfortunately, this also included hundreds of thousands of enslaved Africans who were prohibited from enjoying the opportunity to excel in America.

Conquest by the Cradle

During the 17th Century, the American Colonies experienced a significant growth in the population. This was driven by the birth of children, immigration, and the importation of captive Africans. The first four major cities developed — Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, but more settlements were established and Americans started to look West, over the Appalachian Mountains. As the population increased and spread, the colonies became more difficult for Great Britain to oversee and control.

Population Growth in the Thirteen Colonies

The American Colonies experienced significant population growth in the years leading up to the American Revolution.
In 1700, the colonies had fewer than 300,000 inhabitants. Approximately 20,000 were black, and most of those were enslaved.
By 1775, the population had surged to 2.5 million people, with around half a million of those being black.
White immigrants accounted for nearly 400,000 of the population increase, while black slaves were about the same number.
The remarkable natural fertility of both white and black Americans helped spur population growth.
Colonists were doubling their numbers approximately every 25 years, which astonished and alarmed Europeans.
The average age of colonists in 1775 was approximately 16 years old.

Political Consequences of Population Growth

The population boom in the colonies had significant political implications.
In 1700, there were 20 English people for every American colonist. However, by 1775, the English advantage had diminished to 3 to 1.
The demographic shift set the stage for a change in the balance of power between the American Colonies and Britain.
The reduction in the English population advantage contributed to the growing sense of independence in America and the ability to challenge British authority.

Geographical Distribution of Population

The majority of the population in the colonies lived between the East Coast and the Allegheny Mountains.
By 1775, small groups of pioneers were settled in areas beyond the Alleghenies, particularly in regions like Tennessee and Kentucky.
Despite this Westward Expansion, most of the population remained concentrated in the eastern regions of the colonies.

Most Populous Colonies

In 1775, the most populous colonies were Virginia, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and Maryland, listed in descending order of population size.
These colonies had the largest number of residents compared to others in the region.

Urban Centers

In 1775, only 4 communities could be classified as cities — Philadelphia, New York, Boston, and Charleston.
Philadelphia, including its suburbs, was the largest city with approximately 34,000 residents.
The urban population was only a small fraction of the total population. 90 percent of Americans lived in rural areas.

A Mingling of Races

Immigrants from Western Europe and enslaved Africans helped develop Colonial America’s “Melting Pot” of cultures. Europeans came from different backgrounds — including Germans, Scots-Irish, French Huguenots, Welsh, Dutch, Swedes, Jews, Irish, Swiss, and Scottish Highlanders — and were spread throughout the colonies. Although there were free and enslaved Africans living in all three regions of Colonial America, they were concentrated in the Southern Colonies, where slavery was most prominent. As American cultures grew and developed, efforts were made to assimilate Native American Indians.

Ethnic Diversity in Colonial America

Colonial America was characterized as a melting pot and had a diverse population from the start.
While the majority of the population had English ancestry and spoke English, the culture was enriched by the presence of various foreign groups.

German Immigrants

Fleeing religious persecution, economic hardship, and the turmoil of war in Europe, German immigrants flocked to America during the early 1700s.
Pennsylvania emerged as a primary destination for German immigrants, where they settled in significant numbers.
The German immigrants belonged to various Protestant sects, predominantly Lutheran, contributing to the religious diversity of the colony.
By 1775, Germans accounted for roughly 6 percent of the total population and around 150,000 people.

Pennsylvania Dutch

The term “Pennsylvania Dutch” was popular but inaccurately used to refer to the German-speaking population in Pennsylvania.
“Dutch” is a corruption of the German word “Deutsch,” meaning German.
The Pennsylvania Dutch constituted made up one-third of the population in Pennsylvania.
In parts of Philadelphia, street signs were painted in both German and English.

German Settlements in Pennsylvania

German immigrants settled in the Pennsylvania Backcountry, where they built impressive stone barns.
Their lack of English upbringing meant they did not have a strong allegiance to the British crown, and they retained their German language and customs.

Scots-Irish Population

Despite their name, the Scots-Irish were not Irish but were originally Scottish Lowlanders.
Over time, they were transplanted to Northern Ireland, where they faced challenges and resentment from the Irish Catholics.
Economic hardships persisted for the Scots-Irish, particularly due to restrictive English government policies affecting their production of linens and woolens.
By 1775, the Scots-Irish accounted for roughly 7 percent of the total population and around 175,000 people.

Scots-Irish Immigrants

In the early 1700s, tens of thousands of unhappy Scots-Irish immigrants left Ireland and migrated to America.
Pennsylvania, known for its tolerance and fertile soil, was a primary destination for these immigrants.
Upon arrival, they found that the best land had already been claimed by German and Quaker settlers, prompting them to move further onto the Western Frontier.
Many Scots-Irish settlers illegally squatted on unoccupied lands, leading to conflicts with both Indians and white landowners.
When their expansion to the west was blocked by the Allegheny Mountains, they moved south into the backcountry regions of Maryland, Virginia’s Shenandoah Valley, and the western Carolinas.

Scots-Irish Frontiersmen

The Scots-Irish proved to be exceptional frontiersmen.
Despite their readiness to resort to violence against Indians, they played a crucial role in expanding settlements along the “Great Wagon Road” from Pennsylvania to Georgia.

Characteristics of the Scots-Irish

The Scots-Irish had a reputation for lawlessness and seizing anything they could get their hands.
They were fiercely independent.
They brought with them the Scottish tradition of whiskey distilling, dotting the Appalachian hills with their stills.
They harbored resentment towards the British government, which had uprooted them and continued to exert control over them.
The Scots-Irish were involved in various acts of protest and rebellion, including the Conestoga Massacre and the Paxton Boys’ March on Philadelphia in 1764, along with the Regulator Movement in North Carolina.
Many Scots-Irish, including Andrew Jackson, became prominent figures in the American Revolution, with around a dozen future Presidents had Scots-Irish ancestry.

European Ethnic Groups in Colonial America

Approximately 5 percent of the colonial population consisted of various European groups apart from the English.
These included French Huguenots, Welsh, Dutch, Swedes, Jews, Irish, Swiss, and Scottish Highlanders (distinct from Scots-Irish).
With the exception of Scots Highlanders, these groups exhibited limited loyalty to the British crown.

African Population

The African population was heavily concentrated in the Southern Colonies.
Most Africans were sold into slavery as part of the Transatlantic Slave Trade and traveled to America on ships that crossed the deadly Middle Passage.
By 1775, Africans accounted for roughly 20 percent of the total population

Ethnic Diversity in the American Colonies

The population of the American Colonies, while predominantly Anglo-Saxon, was one of the most diverse in the world.
The South, with about 90 percent of the slave population, had a historic black-and-white racial composition.
New England, settled mainly by Puritan migrants, had the least ethnic diversity.
The Middle Colonies, particularly Pennsylvania, attracted a significant number of later white immigrants from different countries and religious backgrounds.

A Diverse Population

By 1775, about half the population outside of New England was non-English.
Among the 56 signers of the Declaration of Independence in 1776, 18 were non-English, and 8 had not been born in the colonies.

Formation of Multicultural American Identity

Various immigrant groups in Colonial America intermingled and intermarried, laying the groundwork for a new multicultural American national identity.
French settler Michel-Guillaume de Crèvecoeur described America in the 1770s as a unique blend of blood not found elsewhere, prompting the question, “What then is the American, this new man?”

Diversity Among White Colonists

White colonists were not the only ones contributing to the creation of new societies from diverse ethnic groups.
The African Slave Trade resulted in the mixing of peoples from various tribal backgrounds, creating a culturally diverse African-American community in America.

Native American Indian Communities

The formation of multicultural communities extended to Indians.
In New England, Indians were gathered for Christianization in “Praying Towns” and around forts in the Great Lakes Region, like Detroit.
These communities blurred the boundaries of individual tribal identities.

The Structure of Colonial Society

America was viewed by many as a land of opportunity. Unlike Europe, it provided social mobility for many people of European ancestry — especially the opportunity to own land. Over time, social classes started to develop, and so did social issues. For example, homelessness was an issue in larger cities like Boston. British officials made it worse by forcibly deporting people from the lower classes to America. While America provided a chance for a new life for many people, this did not apply to enslaved Africans. However, efforts to restrict the importation of slaves were rejected by British officials, perpetuating Colonial America’s participation in the Transatlantic Slave Trade.

Social Equality and Opportunity in Eighteenth-Century America

In contrast to Europe, 18th Century America was seen as a land of equality and opportunity — with the exception of slavery.
There was no dominant titled nobility controlling society from above, nor was there a pauperized underclass threatening it from below.
The majority of white Americans, along with some free blacks, were small farmers who owned modest holdings and worked them with their own labor and resources.
Cities comprised a small class of skilled artisans, shopkeepers, tradespeople, and a handful of unskilled laborers.
A notable aspect of social mobility was the ease with which ambitious colonists, including former Indentured Servants, could rise from lower to higher rungs of society, a phenomenon that was uncommon in England — and most of Western Europe.

Emergence of Social Stratification

Despite the perception of equality and opportunity, colonial society on the eve of the Revolution started to show signs of stratification and barriers to mobility, raising concerns about the “Europeanization” of America.
Military conflicts of the late 17th and early 18th Centuries allowed some merchants in New England and the Middle Colonies to build a fortune as military suppliers.
These elites, perched atop the social ladder, enjoyed increased wealth and status, reflected in their imported clothing, fine dining, and privileged seating in churches and schools.
By the mid-18th Century, the wealthiest 10% of Bostonians and Philadelphians owned nearly two-thirds of the taxable wealth in their cities.

Impact of War on Society

Wars in the 18th Century led to the creation of a class of widows and orphans in Colonial America who relied on charity for survival.
Cities like Philadelphia and New York established almshouses in the 1730s to provide for the poor.

Comparison with England

Despite the presence of widows, orphans, and the poor in Colonial America, their numbers remained relatively small compared to England, where approximately one-third of the population lived in poverty.

Challenges in New England Countryside

Descendants of the original settlers in the New England countryside faced more limited prospects as the supply of unclaimed land dwindled and existing landholdings were subdivided.
The average size of farms decreased significantly over time, leading to economic challenges for families.
Younger sons and daughters were compelled to seek employment as wage laborers or migrate to new territories beyond the Allegheny Mountains in search of land.

Homelessness in Boston

By 1750, Boston had a significant population of homeless poor individuals, supported by public charity.
These individuals were required to wear a large red “P” on their clothing, indicating their status as recipients of public assistance.

Power Dynamics in the South

In the Southern Colonies, the power of the Merchant Planters remained strong, bolstered by their ownership of slaves.
The wealth generated by the expanding slave population during the 18th Century was not evenly distributed among white residents.
Riches were concentrated among the largest slaveowners, widening the socioeconomic gap between the prosperous gentry and the “poor whites,” who increasingly became Tenant Farmers.

Impact on Social Classes

Across all colonies, the lower classes were further enlarged by a continuous influx of Indentured Servants, many of whom eventually attained prosperity and status.
Two individuals who had served as Indentured Servants went on to become Signers of the Declaration of Independence.

Jayle Birds

Around 50,000 involuntary immigrants, derogatorily referred to as “jayle birds,” were forcibly transported to the colonies by London authorities.
This group consisted of paupers, convicts, and criminals, including individuals convicted of robbery, rape, and murder.
These deportees were generally considered undesirable and harbored little goodwill towards the British government, although some were victims of circumstances and unjust English penal laws.

Plight of Black Slaves

Black slaves were the least fortunate people in Colonial America, lacking equality with whites and facing insurmountable barriers to social advancement.
Oppressed and marginalized, slaves were similar to Europe’s lower classes, and fears of slave rebellion haunted white colonists.
Some colonial legislatures, such as South Carolina’s in 1760, recognized the dangers of a large population of resentful slaves and attempted to restrict or halt their importation.
However, British authorities, aiming to maintain a cheap labor supply for the colonies and the West Indies sugar plantations, consistently vetoed such efforts.

Controversy Surrounding Slavery

Many North American colonists condemned British policies that perpetuated slavery and viewed them as morally wrong.
Despite this condemnation, New England Slave Traders profited from the Transatlantic Slave Trade facilitated by British policies.
The complex nature of the slavery issue was exemplified when Thomas Jefferson, himself a slaveholder, criticized British vetoes on efforts to restrict the slave trade in an early draft of the Declaration of Independence.
However, the proposed clause was removed from the Declaration due to opposition from Southern delegates at the Second Continental Congress.

Clerics, Physicians, and Jurists

Over time, a professional class developed that included the clergy, doctors, and lawyers. The clergy were typically held in high regard. However, doctors and lawyers were viewed with skepticism. Over time, as education improved, so did reputations. Many men involved in these professions helped develop the ideology of the American Revolution.

Christian Ministry

In 1775, the Christian ministry held high honor but was less influential than in early Massachusetts.
Despite reduced influence, the clergy still enjoyed significant prestige in colonial society.

Medical Profession

Physicians were generally poorly trained and lacked high esteem.
The first medical school was established in 1765, although some aspiring doctors studied in European centers.
Young doctors often served as apprentices to older practitioners before practicing independently, with practices sometimes resulting in fatal outcomes.
“Bleeding” was a common but often deadly treatment, and barbers were sometimes called upon in the absence of physicians.

Epidemics and Health Challenges

Epidemics, such as smallpox and diphtheria, were constant nightmares in colonial America.
Smallpox afflicted one out of every five persons, including George Washington.
Despite objections from some physicians and clergy, crude forms of inoculation, like powdered dried toad, were used to combat smallpox.
Diphtheria was a significant killer, especially among young people, with epidemics claiming thousands of lives in the 1730s.
These health challenges served as grim reminders of mortality and may have contributed to the readiness of many colonists to embrace the religious revival that followed.

AHC Note — Refer to Disease in Colonial America for additional notes and details on the impact of disease and epidemics.

Law Profession

Initially, the law profession was not well-regarded in colonial society, where manual labor was highly valued.
Disputes were often settled without legal representation, and lawyers were sometimes viewed negatively as troublemakers.
In early Connecticut, lawyers were classified as drunkards and brothel keepers.
Even future president John Adams faced skepticism from his father-in-law due to his pursuit of a legal career.

Workaday America

Agriculture and fishing formed the backbone of the early economy in Colonial America. As the colonies developed, industry expanded and helped make Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina powerful. Because of British economic policy and the Navigation Acts, these colonies were heavily involved in the Triangular Trade. As the American economy grew, British merchants were unable to meet the needs of American merchants and consumers. This led American merchants to look for new markets. By the mid-18th Century, they were doing business with Spanish and French merchants in the West Indies.

Agriculture

Agriculture was the dominant industry in colonial America, engaging approximately 90% of the population.
Tobacco remained the primary crop in Maryland and Virginia, although wheat cultivation became more prevalent in the Chesapeake Region, often replacing depleted tobacco fields.
The fertile Middle Colonies, known as the “Breadbasket Colonies,” produced significant quantities of grain, with New York alone exporting 80,000 barrels of flour annually by 1759.
Overall, American farmers enjoyed a relatively high standard of living compared to populations in other countries throughout history.

Fishing Industry

Fishing, including whaling, was a lucrative industry, although it ranked below agriculture in terms of importance.
Fishing was practiced in all the colonies, but it was a major industry in New England.
New England exported substantial quantities of dried cod to Catholic countries in Europe.
The fishing industry also contributed to shipbuilding and served as a training ground for sailors who later manned the navy and merchant marine.

Commerce in Colonial America

Commerce, both domestically and internationally, played a key role in enriching all the colonies, particularly New England, New York, and Pennsylvania.
Commercial ventures and land speculation were primary avenues for achieving rapid wealth, as there were no “get-rich-quick” schemes available at the time.
New England seamen were known for their skills as mariners and traders, provisioning Caribbean sugar islands with food and forest products and transporting goods between various ports.

Triangular Trade

The Triangular Trade, though small compared to total colonial commerce, was infamously profitable.
In this trade route, a ship from a New England port would transport rum to the Gold Coast of Africa, where it would be exchanged for African slaves.
The ship would then sail to the West Indies with its cargo of enslaved Africans, exchanging them for molasses.
The molasses would then be transported back to New England, where it would be distilled into rum, completing the Triangular Trade Route.
Each leg of the route generated profits for the ship’s owner, the captain, and investors involved in the trade.

Manufacturing in Colonial America

Manufacturing held secondary importance in the colonies, although there existed a surprising array of small enterprises.
Generally, individuals found faster advancement opportunities in agriculture due to the fertile American soil.

Key Manufacturing Activities

Rhode Island and Massachusetts were notable for the production of large quantities of “kill devil” rum, despite concerns about excessive consumption.
Beaver hats were manufactured in significant quantities, despite British regulations.
Iron forges, such as Pennsylvania’s Valley Forge, were widespread across the colonies and were more numerous, albeit smaller, than those in England by 1775.
Household manufacturing, including spinning and weaving primarily by women, contributed to a significant output. The clothing produced in this fashion was known as “Homespun.”
Skilled laborers and craftspeople were scarce and highly valued, with some individuals receiving leniency for crimes due to their specialized skills.

AHC Note — William Dawes famously wore a homespun suit to his wedding.

Lumbering

Lumbering emerged as one of the most important manufacturing activities in America.
Vast quantities of virgin timber were harvested for shipbuilding, initially concentrated in New England and later expanding throughout the colonies.
By 1770, approximately 400 vessels of various sizes were launched each year, with one-third of the British merchant marine consisting of American-built ships.

Colonial Naval Stores

Colonial Naval Stores, including tar, pitch, rosin, and turpentine, were highly valued commodities due to Britain’s desire to maintain dominance of the seas.
London offered generous bounties to encourage the production of these items, as relying on uncertain Baltic sources was undesirable.
Trees suitable for ship masts were marked with the King’s Broad Arrow for future naval use, and penalties were imposed on colonists caught cutting down reserved timber.
Americans resented this due to the large number of trees that were available.

AHC Note — The production of Naval Stores was important to the economy of the Province of North Carolina.

Trade Imbalance and Seeking Foreign Markets

By the early 18th century, strains appeared in the Atlantic economy as the American population grew faster than the British population could absorb imports.
This trade imbalance led to the question of how the colonists could sell goods to generate the funds needed to purchase British products.
Seeking foreign markets outside of Britain became the obvious solution to this trade imbalance.

Trade with Foreign Markets

By the eve of the Revolution, Chesapeake tobacco was primarily consumed in France and other European countries, facilitated by British re-exporters who took a portion of the profits.
Trade with the West Indies, particularly the French West Indies, was key for American merchants, as West Indian purchases of North American timber and foodstuffs provided essential cash flow.
In 1733, Parliament passed the Molasses Act, aiming to disrupt North American trade with the French West Indies. This threatened American trade and the standard of living in the colonies.
American merchants responded by circumventing the law through bribery and smuggling.

Horsepower and Sailpower

Transportation in Colonial America was driven by waterways and rough roads. Americans used Horses and sailing vessels to move through the colonies. This led to the establishment of taverns as rest stops. Eventually, postal routes were developed that made it easier for Americans to communicate with each other.

Transportation Challenges in Colonial America

Pioneer communities in America faced transportation challenges due to their sprawling and sparsely populated nature.
Roads connecting major cities were not established until the 1700s, and even then, they were rudimentary dirt paths.
These roads were deficient, with travel speeds comparable to ancient Roman highways from nearly 2,000 years earlier.
Traveling between cities was slow and difficult. For instance, Benjamin Franklin’s journey from Boston to Philadelphia in 1720 took 9 days, involving travel by sailing sloop, rowboat, and foot.
News of the Declaration of Independence in 1776 took 29 days to reach Charleston from Philadelphia.
Roads were often plagued by issues such as dust clouds in summer and muddy quagmires in winter, making travel challenging.
Stagecoach travelers faced additional dangers including tree-strewn roads, rickety bridges, carriage overturns, and runaway horses.
Travelers on long journeys, such as from Philadelphia to New York, often faced such perilous conditions that it was not uncommon for them to make a will and pray with their families before departing.

Navigable Waterways as Transportation

Because man-made roads were poor, many people relied on waterways for transportation.
Population growth tended to concentrate along the banks of rivers, facilitating trade and travel.
Coastwise traffic was common, offering relatively cheap and pleasant transportation options, despite being slow and undependable.

Role of Taverns

Taverns were prevalent along main travel routes and in cities, offering various attractions such as bowling alleys, pool tables, bars, and gambling equipment.
They served as social hubs where people from all social classes mingled, including village loafers and drunks, contributing to the tavern’s role as a cradle of democracy.

Taverns as Information Hubs

Taverns also served as gathering places for gossip, becoming central locations for information, misinformation, and rumors.
Alcoholic refreshments and impassioned political discussions often fueled discussions, making taverns significant in crystallizing public opinion and fostering agitation during the Revolutionary movement (see Alcohol in Colonial America).

Postal System Challenges

An Intercolonial Postal System was established by the mid-1700s, although private couriers continued to operate.
Mail service was slow and infrequent, with some mail handled on credit, and maintaining secrecy was challenging.
Mail carriers, serving long routes, sometimes read the letters entrusted to their care to pass the time.

Dominant Denominations

Organized religion in Colonial America was dominated by the Church of England and the Congregational Church. Despite their presence and connections to the political system, Religious Freedom was practiced in many colonies, allowing Catholics, Quakers, Jews, and others labeled as “Religious Dissenters” to practice their faith. Despite this, many religious groups still held to the old opinions of each other that existed in Europe. This led to persecution — such as Quakers being executed in Massachusetts — and military conflicts — like Coode’s Rebellion (Protestant Revolution) in Maryland.

Established Churches in 1775

Two tax-supported churches were prominent in 1775 — the Anglican Church and the Congregational Church.
A considerable portion of the population did not attend any church.
In colonies with established religions, only a minority of the population belonged to them.

Anglican Church in America (Church of England)

The Church of England, commonly known as the Anglican Church, was the official faith in several colonies, including Georgia, North and South Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and part of New York.
It served as a significant support for kingly authority, both in America and in England.
British officials attempted to impose the Anglican Church on additional colonies but faced strong opposition.
The Anglican Church failed to live up to its promise in America, resembling its parent church in England with a secure and self-satisfied demeanor.
It maintained a less fierce and more worldly faith compared to the religion of Puritanical New England.
Sermons were shorter, views on hell were less severe, and activities like Virginia fox hunting were more accepted.
The reputation of Anglican clergy in 17th Century Virginia was so dismal that the College of William and Mary was established in 1693 to train better clergy.

Congregational Church in New England

The Congregational Church, founded on the Puritan Church, was formally established in all New England Colonies except Rhode Island.
Initially, Massachusetts taxed all residents to support Congregationalism, but later exemptions were granted to members of other denominations.
Although closely associated with Congregationalism, Presbyterianism was never officially established in any colonies.
Puritan sermons in Colonial America were some of the most prominent in the era.

Political Involvement of Ministers

Ministers increasingly engaged in important political issues, transitioning from focusing on the Bible to addressing worldly matters.
As rumblings of revolution against the British crown emerged, sedition was openly preached from pulpits, with Presbyterianism, Congregationalism, and rebellion becoming intertwined.
Many Anglican clergymen, aware of their dependence on government support, naturally sided with the King during the American Revolution.

Challenges of Anglicans in the New World

Anglicans in the New World faced significant challenges due to the absence of a resident Bishop, necessary for ordaining young ministers conveniently.
American students of Anglican theology had to travel to England for ordination, posing logistical and financial difficulties.
On the eve of the Revolution, there were discussions about establishing an American bishopric, but this was met with violent opposition from many non-Anglicans, fearing increased Crown control.

Religious Toleration in America

Religious tolerance in America had made significant progress compared to other parts of the world.
Roman Catholics still faced discrimination, similar to England, particularly in holding office, but with fewer Catholics in America, anti-papist laws were less severe and strictly enforced.
In general, people enjoyed greater freedom to worship or not worship as they pleased, reflecting a more tolerant atmosphere compared to other regions.

The Great Awakening

In the 1730s and 1740s, a religious revival swept through Colonial America, known as the Great Awakening. It was driven by preachers like Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield and spread throughout the colonies. While it created a divide in some churches, it was also the first movement that started to unify Americans — from New England to Georgia — in one cohesive ideology. The movement contributed to the establishment of new colleges, furthering education in America.

Changes in Colonial Churches in the Early 18th Century

Religion in colonial churches experienced a decline in participation in the early 18th Century.
Puritan churches faced challenges due to their complex theological doctrines and efforts to relax membership requirements.
Churchgoers grew discontented with tedious, uninspiring sermons.
Concerns arose among ministers about parishioners becoming spiritually complacent, no longer stirred by orthodox Calvinism’s hellfire teachings.
Liberal ideas emerged, challenging traditional religious beliefs, and suggesting salvation through good works rather than predestination.
Arminian Doctrines, emphasizing individual free will over divine decree in determining one’s fate, further challenged Calvinist beliefs.
Some churches reluctantly accepted that spiritual conversion was unnecessary for church membership.
These trends led to a decline in many denominations during this period.

Jonathan Edwards

The Great Awakening, a religious revival, took place in the 1730s and 1740s.
It started in Northampton, Massachusetts, under the leadership of Jonathan Edwards, a pastor known for his intellectual prowess and fiery preaching style.
Edwards emphasized the need for complete dependence on God’s grace for salvation, condemning the belief in salvation through good works.
He painted vivid images of hell and eternal damnation in his sermons, such as “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” evoking fear and repentance among his listeners.
Despite his learned and reasoned preaching style, his stark doctrines resonated with parishioners, sparking a sympathetic reaction in 1734.

George Whitefield

George Whitefield, an English preacher, played a key role in igniting religious fervor during the Great Awakening.
Unlike Edwards, Whitefield employed a different preaching style, characterized by powerful oratory and emotional appeal.
Whitefield’s remarkable voice captivated thousands of listeners in open fields.
His ability to evoke strong emotions in his audience, even with simple utterances, demonstrated his exceptional skill as an orator.
Whitefield’s charismatic presence and passionate sermons contributed significantly to the widespread spiritual revival across the colonies.

Whitefield toured the colonies, preaching a message of human helplessness and divine omnipotence during the Great Awakening.
His eloquence had a significant impact, moving even Jonathan Edwards to tears and prompting Benjamin Franklin to generously contribute to collections.
Whitefield’s revival meetings led to numerous conversions, with sinners expressing repentance through groans, shrieks, or physical manifestations of religious excitement.
American preachers emulated Whitefield’s style, using emotional appeals and theatrics to captivate audiences and promote religious fervor.

Old Lights and New Lights

Orthodox clergymen, labeled “Old Lights,” criticized the emotionalism and theatrics of the revivalists.
“New Light” ministers defended the Great Awakening, crediting it with revitalizing American religion.
The controversy led to divisions within denominations, with Congregationalists and Presbyterians experiencing splits.
Many believers in religious conversion migrated to Baptist and other sects more receptive to emotional expressions in worship.

Long-Term Effects of the Great Awakening

The emphasis on direct, emotive spirituality challenged the authority of older clergy, whose legitimacy rested on education and erudition.
Schisms within denominations increased the number and competitiveness of American churches.
The Great Awakening spurred missionary efforts among Indians and slaves.
New Light centers of higher learning, such as Princeton, Brown, Rutgers, and Dartmouth, were established as part of the movement.
The Great Awakening was the first spontaneous mass movement in American history, transcending sectional and denominational boundaries.
It was the first intercolonial event that contributed to a sense of American identity.

Schools and Colleges

Access to education helped transform Colonial America. In Europe, education was primarily offered to the upper classes. Many in the aristocracy believed that educating the masses would only lead to trouble. Although Puritans in New England believed in education for all and implemented primary and secondary schools, the establishment of schools developed slowly in the Middle Colonies and Southern Colonies.

English Attitudes Towards Education

Traditional English views considered education a privilege reserved for the aristocracy, emphasizing leadership over citizenship and primarily for males.
These beliefs hindered widespread access to education, perpetuating social hierarchies and limiting opportunities for the general populace.

Puritan Emphasis on Education

Puritan New England prioritized education, which was largely driven by religious motives.
The Congregational Church advocated for individual Bible reading, on top of civic education.
The clergy played a central role in education, working to cultivate religious virtue and piety in the population.

Transition to a More Secular Approach

By the late 18th Century, a shift towards a more secular approach to education emerged.
Some children were encouraged to learn basic literacy skills through verses emphasizing the practical benefits of education, such as improved social status and opportunities for leisure activities.

Education in New England

Education, primarily for boys, thrived in New England from the early colonial period.
New Englanders, influenced by Puritan values, established primary and secondary schools, with many graduates from English universities like Cambridge.
However, farm labor and other practical demands often limited the time and energy available for education among youth.

Education in the Middle Colonies and South

The Middle Colonies and Southern Colonies also had elementary schools but with varying quality and accessibility.
Some schools received tax support, while others operated privately.
In the South, logistical challenges due to dispersed populations slowed the establishment of effective school systems.
Wealthy families in the South often hired private tutors for their children.

Curriculum and Atmosphere

Colonial schools and colleges placed heavy emphasis on religion and classical languages, such as Latin and Greek.
The educational focus prioritized doctrine and dogma over experimentation and reason.
Orthodoxy prevailed, discouraging independent thinking.
Discipline in schools was harsh, with punishment often involving physical chastisement like “birching” — where a teacher struck a student with a small branch from a birch tree.
Sometimes, Indentured Servants were tasked with administering punishments.

Importance of College Education

In New England, college education was initially considered more crucial than basic literacy, because training new ministers was key to sustaining and establishing church congregations.
Wealthy families, especially in the South, often sent their sons to England for higher education.

Establishment of Local Colleges

Nine local colleges were founded during the colonial period for convenience and cost-effectiveness.
The colleges were Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Princeton, Pennsylvania, Columbia, Brown, Rutgers, and Dartmouth.
Enrollments were small, typically around 200 students at most.
Some colleges, like Harvard, admitted boys as young as eleven.
Instruction quality was subpar by modern standards, with a heavy emphasis on theology and classical languages.

Evolution of Curriculum

By 1750, there was a shift towards incorporating modern subjects and “live” languages into the curriculum.
Benjamin Franklin played a significant role in founding the University of Pennsylvania, the first American college free from denominational control.

A Provincial Culture

The arts developed slowly in Colonial America and were largely based on European culture, including painting styles and architecture. While printing presses contributed to newspapers and broadsides, colonial literature was limited. The two most prominent examples of early American literature are the poems of Phillis Wheatley, a slave, and Benjamin Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanack. Science also developed slowly in the colonies and was also driven by Franklin. By the time of the American Revolution, Franklin was the most famous American in the world.

Art and Culture in Colonial America

Colonial Americans were heavily influenced by European tastes, particularly British, in matters of art and culture.
The simplicity of pioneer life did not foster a strong patronage of the arts within colonial society.
John Trumbull, a painter from Connecticut, was discouraged due to the lack of artistic opportunities in America. His painting of the Battle of Bunker Hill is one of the most iconic in American history.
Many talented artists, including Charles Willson Peale, John Singleton Copley, and Benjamin West, traveled to London to pursue their ambitions.
Peale, known for his portraits of George Washington, also ran a museum and practiced dentistry.
Copley and West achieved fame as painters but had to seek opportunities abroad, primarily in England, for training and patronage.
Architecture in colonial America was largely imported from Europe and adapted to local conditions.
The Georgian style, introduced around 1720, became prevalent in pre-Revolutionary America and is exemplified by the architecture of Williamsburg, Virginia, which has been restored to showcase its historical beauty.

Colonial Literature

Colonial literature was undistinguished due to limited opportunities and cultural factors.
An exception was Phillis Wheatley, a slave girl brought to Boston at age 8, who became a poet despite lacking formal education.
Wheatley published a book of verse in England at 20 years old.
Her poetry stands out in the poetry-poor colonial period.

Benjamin Franklin’s Literary Contributions

Benjamin Franklin, known as “the first civilized American,” made significant contributions to colonial literature.
His autobiography is a classic, but he was best known for Poor Richard’s Almanack, which he edited from 1732 to 1758.
Poor Richard’s contained pithy sayings emphasizing virtues like thrift, industry, morality, and common sense.
The almanac was widely read in America and Europe, shaping the American character with its teachings.

Scientific Progress in Colonial America

Science in colonial America was advancing but lagged behind Europe.
Few botanists, mathematicians, and astronomers gained some repute, with Benjamin Franklin being perhaps the only first-rank scientist.
Franklin conducted notable experiments, including the kite-flying episode demonstrating lightning as electricity.
He also invented practical devices like bifocal spectacles, the Franklin Stove, and the lightning rod, which faced criticism from some clergymen for presuming to control nature.

Pioneer Presses

Newspapers and broadsides were far more prevalent in Colonial America than books, which usually had to be imported from Europe. Libraries were established to provide access to books, but newspapers, broadsides, and other things that could be quickly printed were popular. Newspapers were weekly, not daily, so the news was often behind — but it still led to controversy. In 1734, New York printer John Peter Zenger was arrested for printing articles that were critical of the Governor — but were also true. Zenger was eventually found not guilty by the jury in one of the landmark legal decisions that led to the enshrinement of the Freedom of the Press in the United States Constitution.

Book Availability and Private Libraries

Americans had problems accessing books due to poverty and time constraints.
A South Carolina merchant in 1744 advertised the arrival of a shipment of “printed books, Pictures, Maps, and Pickles.”
Private libraries, particularly among the clergy, were relatively rare but existed, with the Byrd family of Virginia having one of the largest collections in the colonies, totaling about 4,000 volumes.
Benjamin Franklin established the first privately supported circulating library in America in Philadelphia. By 1776, there were approximately 50 public libraries and collections supported by subscriptions across the colonies.

Printing Presses and Newspapers

Hand-operated printing presses produced pamphlets, leaflets, and journals, contributing to the spread of information in colonial America.
On the eve of the Revolution, there were around 40 colonial newspapers, primarily weeklies comprising a single large sheet folded once.
Columns in newspapers often featured somber essays, sometimes signed with pseudonyms like Cicero, Philosophicus, and Pro Bono Publico (For the Public Good).
The news reported in newspapers often lagged behind the actual events, especially concerning overseas happenings that were of deep interest to the colonists.
Newspapers emerged as powerful platforms for airing colonial grievances and mobilizing opposition against British control, playing a significant role in shaping public opinion.

John Peter Zenger Trial

The celebrated legal case of 1734–1735 involved John Peter Zenger, a newspaper printer in New York City.
Zenger had criticized the corrupt Governor, leading to his arrest on charges of seditious libel.
Defended by Andrew Hamilton, a distinguished Philadelphia lawyer, Zenger argued that he had printed the truth.
The royal chief justice instructed the jury not to consider the truth or falsity of Zenger’s statements, asserting that the act of printing alone was enough for conviction.
Hamilton defended Zenger’s actions, emphasizing the importance of liberty in opposing arbitrary power.
Despite the judge’s instructions, the jury returned a verdict of not guilty, defying the court’s authority and eliciting cheers from spectators.

Significance of the Zenger Decision

The Zenger decision was a landmark victory for Freedom of the Press and democracy, setting a precedent for open public discussion.
Although initially contrary to existing laws and not universally accepted, the decision eventually contributed to establishing the doctrine that true statements about public officials could not be prosecuted as libel.
While it did not immediately grant full Freedom of the Press, the Zenger decision paved the way for newspapers to print responsible criticisms of powerful officials.

The Great Game of Politics

While British officials expected the colonies to fall in line with the loose collection of documents that made up the British Constitution, the Crown allowed for representative government in America, starting with the Virginia House of Burgesses, which was established in 1619. Over time, representative government expanded in the form of Town Meetings, County Government, and colonial legislatures. Eventually, elected officials came into conflict with Crown-appointed officials, setting the stage for the American Revolution.

Colonial Governments

By 1775, the 13 colonial governments exhibited diverse forms of governance.
8 colonies had Governors appointed by the King, including Virginia, Massachusetts, and New York.
Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware were under Proprietors who selected their own Governors.
Connecticut and Rhode Island operated under self-governing charters, electing their own Governors.

Legislative Structure

Nearly every colony had a two-house legislative body.
The upper house, or council, was typically appointed by the crown in Royal Colonies or by the proprietor in Proprietary Colonies, while self-governing colonies elected their council members.
The lower house, representing the populace, was elected by eligible property-owning voters.
In some colonies, particularly those with Backcountry populations, there was discontent due to under-representation in the legislature.

Taxation and Representation

Colonists valued the principle of Taxation With Representation, considering it a fundamental right.
Legislatures, where the people had direct representation, had the authority to levy taxes for colonial government expenses.
The ability to participate in the decision-making process regarding taxation was highly cherished by the colonists, often more so than other rights or privileges.

Royal Governors in the Colonies

Governors appointed by the Crown varied in competence and character.
While some were able and distinguished individuals, others were inept or corrupt, often seeking refuge in colonial appointments.
Lord Cornbury, appointed as governor of New York and New Jersey in 1702, epitomized the worst traits among royal appointees, including drunkenness, corruption, religious intolerance, and extravagance.

Struggles with Colonial Legislatures

Royal Governors faced challenges in dealing with colonial assemblies.
Colonial assemblies often asserted their authority and independence through tactics like withholding the governor’s salary until their demands were met.
The “power of the purse,” controlled by the assemblies, often forced Governors to give in to the assembly’s wishes.

Poor Administration by the British Government

The British government’s failure to provide independent sources of payment for Governors exacerbated tensions between Governors and colonial legislatures.
Control over Governors’ salaries by colonial legislatures led to prolonged disputes.

Townshend Taxes and Colonial Unrest

Parliament attempted to address the issue by arranging separate payments of Governors through the Townshend Acts.
However, by this time, colonists were already deeply discontented with British taxation policies, and the new arrangement only fueled further resentment and opposition.

Local Government Diversity

County Government was prevalent in the Southern Colonies.
New England favored the Town Meeting government, employing direct democracy through open discussion and voting.
The Middle Colonies developed a hybrid system that combined aspects of both County Government and Town Meetings.

Town Meetings

Town Meetings used direct democracy, allowing citizens to participate in open discussions and voting.
Americans learned to value their privileges and fulfill their duties as citizens in these self-governing communities.

Voting Qualifications

Religious or property qualifications for voting, with stricter requirements for officeholding, existed in all colonies by 1775.
Fearful of democratic excesses, the privileged upper classes limited voting rights, leading to the disfranchisement of about half of adult white males.
Eligibility for voting was often attainable through land ownership, but many eligible voters chose not to exercise their rights.

Democratic Progress

Despite not yet being a true democracy, America in 1775 was more democratic than England and Europe.
Colonial institutions fostered democratic ideals such as tolerance, educational opportunities, economic equality, freedom of speech, press, assembly, and representative government.
These democratic foundations, deeply rooted in colonial society, would flourish in later years, shaping the nation’s democratic identity.

Colonial Folkways

Everyday life in Colonial America was difficult. Many people relied on their own skills for food, shelter, and clothing. The basic comforts Americans enjoy today did not exist in the Colonial Era, including sanitation and running water. However, Americans still keep themselves amused through community gatherings and recreational activities. Like many traditions, the observation of holidays varied by region and culture.

Colonial Everyday Life Overview

Life in the colonies, often romanticized in retrospect, was actually characterized by drudgery and monotony, lacking many modern comforts.

Labor

Work was physically demanding and continuous, from sunrise to sunset.

Food

While food was abundant, diets tended to be coarse and repetitive, though meat consumption was notably high compared to Europe.
Empty stomachs were rare, and being lazy or sickly was often attributed to hunger.

Basic Comforts

Churches lacked heating, relying on foot warmers during frigid winters, potentially making the preaching of hellfire more appealing.
Homes were drafty and poorly heated by inefficient fireplaces, lacking running water, plumbing, and bathing facilities.
Illumination was provided by dim candles and whale oil lamps, offering faint and flickering light.

Sanitation

Garbage disposal was rudimentary, with hogs roaming the streets to consume refuse, while buzzards scavenged overhead.

Amusements

Amusement was eagerly sought after when time and tradition allowed, offering a break from the monotony of daily life.

Community Gatherings and Military Training

Militias held periodic “musters,” which included days of drilling, interspersed with socializing and flirting.
Frontier communities combined pleasure with work at events like house raisings, quilting bees, husking bees, and apple parings.
Social gatherings at funerals and weddings were common, often involving the consumption of strong liquor.

Recreation

Winter sports were popular in the North, while the South favored activities like card playing, horse racing, cockfighting, and fox hunting.
Dancing, particularly jigs, square dances, and the Virginia reel, was a beloved pastime in the non-Puritanical South.
Lotteries were widely accepted and used to raise funds for various purposes, including churches and colleges.
Stage plays gained popularity in the South but faced opposition in Quaker and Puritan colonies, being seen as immoral by some clergy members. Instead, religious lectures were preferred for spiritual enrichment.

Colonial Holiday Traditions

Holidays were widely celebrated throughout the American colonies.
Christmas was frowned upon in New England due to its association with “Popery,” with Puritans commonly sneering, “Yuletide is fooltide.”
Thanksgiving Day emerged as a uniquely American festival, combining gratitude to God with feasting and revelry.

AHC Note — Celebrating Christmas was forbidden in Plymouth Colony. Also, Thanksgiving was not an official national holiday until 1870.

Colonial Unity and Diversity

By the mid-18th Century, Britain’s North American colonies exhibited striking similarities despite their differences.
All colonies were predominantly English-speaking and Protestant, with varying degrees of ethnic and religious diversity and tolerance.
Despite differences, all colonies provided opportunities for social mobility and possessed some degree of self-government, though not complete democracy.
Improvements in communication and transportation facilitated connections among the colonies.

British North America

By 1775, British North America resembled a patchwork quilt, with each colony slightly different but bound together by common origins, ways of life, and beliefs in toleration and self-rule.
Despite differences, the colonies shared a history, culture, and geography, separated from the seat of imperial authority by a vast ocean, setting the stage for their struggle for independence.

Resources for Colonial Society on the Eve of the Revolution

The notes on this page are based on the 16th edition of The American Pageant. We have expanded on the source material with additional details, corrections, and links to Encyclopedia Entries that explain topics in more detail. For more information, including terms and definitions, see the following:

Advanced Placement United States History (APUSH) Units
The Planting of English America (1500–1733)
Settling the Northern Colonies (1619–1700)
American Life in the 17th Century (1607–1692)
Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution (1700–1775)
The Duel for North America (1608–1763)
America Secedes from the Empire (1775–1783)

Content for this article has been compiled and edited by American History Central Staff.