Continental Army

Essential Facts

• The Continental Army was formed in 1775 by the Second Continental Congress, after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War.
• George Washington was appointed the first Commander-in-Chief and led the army through the war’s end.
• Foreign officers, including Baron Friedrich von Steuben and the Marquis de Lafayette, helped improve the army’s tactics and discipline.
• Leadership from officers like Nathanael Greene, Horatio Gates, Benedict Arnold, Philip Schuyler, and Daniel Morgan helped keep the army intact.
• The army’s major campaigns were the Siege of Boston, New York, New Jersey, Saratoga, Philadelphia, Greene’s Southern Campaign, and Yorktown.
• After Yorktown, Congress reduced the army’s size due to the expense, concerns over maintaining a standing army, and the declining threat of British hostilities.
• Today’s U.S. Army is linked to the Continental Army through the 1st Battalion, 5th Field Artillery Regiment, which Alexander Hamilton commanded during the Revolutionary War. This unit is known as “Hamilton’s Own.”

Key Dates

• 1775, June 14 — The first troops for the new army were approved, consisting of six companies of riflemen from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia.
• 1775, June 15 — George Washington was elected Commander-in-Chief. 
• 1775, June 16 — Washington accepted the nomination. 
• 1775, June 17 — Artemas Ward was appointed as a Major General and Second-in-Command to Washington. Horatio Gates was appointed Adjutant General with the rank of Brigadier General. Charles Lee was appointed as a Major General and Third-in-Command.
• 1775, June 19 — Philip Schuyler was appointed as the 3rd Major General, and Israel Putnam was appointed as the 4th Major General.
• 1775, June 22 — Brigadier Generals were commissioned: Seth Pomeroy, Richard Montgomery, David Wooster, William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John Thomas, John Sullivan, and Nathanael Greene.
• 1775, December 31 — The Northern Army fought its first major battle at Quebec City.
• 1776, August 27 — Washington’s Army fought its first major battle on Long Island.
• 1777, October 17 — British forces surrendered to General Horatio Gates at Saratoga.
• 1781, October 19 — British forces surrendered to Washington at Yorktown.

Significance

The Continental Army is important to American History for the role it played in defending the United States during the American Revolutionary War and securing the nation’s independence from Great Britain.

History

Role of the Continental Army in the War

The Continental Army was America’s first nationwide army and operated during the American Revolutionary War. Despite the concerns Americans had over a standing army, somewhere between 230,000 and 350,000 men served during the war. Without this army, the United Colonies would have likely lost the war.

• The army experienced defeats but was never completely destroyed.
• It won significant victories against the British despite setbacks.
• The army was able to organize and regroup each year.
• This ability to keep fighting helped continue the war effort.

The army did not exist at the start of the war and was essentially designed, managed, and trained from scratch. Because of this, members of Congress, the army’s officers, and the army’s soldiers were constantly working to deal with supply chain issues, behavior, and military strategy. The experiences of battle, marches, and encampments all helped give the men the necessary experience to win the war.

One of the greatest strengths of the army’s leaders was that many had served in the provincial forces during the French and Indian War (1754–1763). Some also served in the British Royal Army or in Europe during the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763).

• American leaders built a professional army despite limited financial resources and ongoing political challenges, either within Congress, between state legislatures, or with Britain.
• The experience gained by the soldiers helped the army become more skilled and capable.
• The Continental Army was considered to be a professional army by the end of the war.

Adam Stephen’s Appeal to Defend America

On August 27, 1774, Adam Stephen, an officer in the Virginia Militia, wrote a letter to Richard Henry Lee, warning him that weapons and ammunition were in short supply. At the time, Lee was preparing to march into the Ohio Valley with Virginia’s Governor, John Murray, Lord Dunmore, to retaliate against Native American Indians for their attacks on frontier settlements. It was letters like this that led the King to ban the sale of weapons and ammunition in America.

Stephen said, “…I must acquaint you, that the situation of America, that is, the parts of it I am acquainted with, is unhappy in not being provided with arms and ammunition.” Then he suggested the First Continental Congress should consider, “…encourageing numbers of gun-lock smiths to come in; a number of locks to be imported, with caution to prevent suspicion; and as many arms as could be got…Contrive a supply of ammunition; let some be brought in by every ship.”

He continued, “It appears to me, that they intend to irritate America into rebellion, and then govern us like a conquered people.”

In closing, he predicted the outcome of the war that he saw coming, “Let us be provided with arms and ammunition, and individuals may suffer, but the gates of hell cannot prevail against America…”

During the First Continental Congress, Lee proposed establishing a nationwide militia. While this was rejected, Congress did approve the Articles of Association, establishing the Continental Association.

Massachusetts Militia and Minutemen

In October 1774, members of the Massachusetts General Assembly formed the Massachusetts Provincial Congress. This body provided instructions to the towns on how to prepare to defend themselves, in case Britain turned to the use of military force. 

• The Provincial Congress established a Committee of Safety.
• The Committee of Safety was given the authority to muster the militia.

On October 24, the Provincial Congress proclaimed to the towns in Massachusetts that they needed to take control of their militias and establish Committees of Safety. The following day, October 25, 1774, the Provincial Congress appointed three Generals:

1. Jedediah Preble
2. Artemas Ward
3. Seth Pomeroy

The Provincial Congress also instructed the towns to replace members of the militia, especially officers, who did not support the Patriot Cause.

• Older men and those with questionable loyalty were replaced.
• Younger, more committed men filled the ranks.
• Veterans of the French and Indian War were often chosen as commanders.
• Training and drilling of troops became more intense.

A week earlier, on October 17, 1774, William Legge, Lord Dartmouth, sent a letter to General Thomas Gage, encouraging him to disarm the New England Colonies. Two days later, on October 19, King George III issued an order prohibiting the American Colonies from importing firearms and ammunition.

Unaware of the King’s action, the Massachusetts Committee of Safety drafted a budget for buying ammunition, artillery, and other military supplies on October 25. The next day, October 26, the Committee recommended that each town organize and supply its militia forces. Further, they recommended the formation of “companies of fifty privates at the least, who shall…hold themselves in readiness on the shortest notice…”

• A new type of militia unit was developed for rapid response.
• These units agreed to serve longer than usual.
• They became known as Minutemen.

The Committee of Safety also started moving military supplies inland, to places like Concord and Worcester, so they were further away from British forces on the coast.

Origin of the New England Army of Observation

The Provincial Congress met again in February 1775 and issued a report that declared “…the present dangerous and alarming situation of our publick affairs, renders it necessary for this Colony to make preparations for their security and defence by raising and establishing an Army.”

By the end of March, General Gage planned to take action against the Provincial Congress. On March 29, he sent a large column of 1,200 British troops out of Boston, led by General Hugh Percy, on a march toward Roxbury. Although the march was likely nothing more than a way to give the men some exercise, it caught the attention of Patriots, and express riders were sent to raise the alarm in the countryside.

In response to this march, the Provincial Congress resolved the next day, March 30, that any time 500 or more British troops marched out of Boston, an “Army of Observation” should assemble right away to “…act solely on the defensive…” 

• On April 8, 1775, the Provincial Congress endorsed a plan to form a New England Army.
• The New England Army was intended to have 30,000 troops. 
• Massachusetts was supposed to provide nearly half of them, with 13,600. 
• Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island also agreed to provide troops.
• Each regiment in the army was to have 600 men.
• The plan also included an artillery regiment.
• On April 14, the Provincial Congress instructed the Committee of Safety to select officers for this army.
• Representatives were sent to New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut to present the plan and ask for their participation.
• Congress adjourned on April 15.

The American Revolutionary War Begins

Progress in the organization and formation of the army was accelerated by the Battles of Lexington and Concord, which took place on April 19, 1775.

• Approximately 4,000 Massachusetts militiamen gathered and followed the British back to Boston, harassing them along the way and inflicting heavy casualties.
• General William Heath directed the American pursuit from Lexington back to Boston.
• When the British reached Bunker Hill on the Charlestown Peninsula, the Americans ended their pursuit because they were within range of the guns on the British warships anchored in Boston Harbor.
• Heath had the men remain around Boston, starting the Siege of Boston. 
• During the day, New Hampshire Militia companies made their way to Boston.

In the following days, the Provincial Congress developed its plan for organizing the army and adopted a plan presented by General Artemas Ward.

• Ward took command of the army, and his headquarters were in Cambridge.
• Frequent changes were made to the organization of regiments and the number of officers.
• The New England Army was typically referred to as the “Army of Observation” or the “Boston Army.”

Not only did this makeshift army need to remain in place to keep the British trapped in Boston, but it needed to do so while dealing with several key issues:

• Many of the men had left home on the morning of the 19th, intending to be home that evening. They were unprepared to spend days, weeks, or months conducting a lengthy siege.
• New England leaders were unsure how to proceed because there was no clear chain of command. Although Ward was considered to be in command of the army, officers from New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut were not required to follow his orders.
• As news of hostilities spread, more militia units were organized and sent to Boston. This second wave of militiamen had agreed to enlist for three to six months, but the duration varied, based on the town, county, or colony with which they enlisted. For many of these men, their enlistments ended on December 31, 1775.

The size of the army continued to grow, but the basic structure was in place by mid-June:

• 26 Massachusetts regiments
• 3 New Hampshire regiments
• 3 Rhode Island regiments
• 3 Connecticut regiments

These troops, nearly 19,000 total, were poorly equipped, and many of them were inexperienced.

• AHC Note — The Provincial Congress also took steps to define the narrative around the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Representatives interviewed eyewitnesses and collected 23 eyewitness depositions, which were used to compile an official narrative of the battles of April 19.

The War Escalates — Capture of Fort Ticonderoga

One of the last measures taken by the First Continental Congress in October 1774 was to agree to reconvene in May 1775 if Parliament did not repeal the Intolerable Acts. Parliament did not repeal, and by the time Congress convened in Philadelphia on May 10, the war was already spreading beyond New England.

• Unknown to Congress, Connecticut and Massachusetts had authorized separate military expeditions to go to Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain, capture the garrison, and seize the cannons, artillery, and ammunition.
• Connecticut sent Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys, while Massachusetts authorized Benedict Arnold to raise troops for his expedition.
• When Arnold learned about Allen’s expedition, he tried to take command, but the Green Mountain Boys refused to follow him. A compromise was reached, and Arnold served alongside Allen.
• On May 10, they led a successful assault and captured Fort Ticonderoga.

Congress Considers the Defense of New York

A few days later, on May 15, James Duane of New York submitted a letter from the New York Committee of One Hundred to Congress. The Committee believed British forces were on their way to attack the city. Congress responded by instructing New Yorkers to:

• Avoid contact with British troops, if possible.
• Prevent British troops from entering the city’s defensive fortifications.
• Defend themselves, if necessary.

A committee was established to oversee military preparations for New York. This committee was the first congressional body organized to direct colonial defenses, and George Washington of Virginia was one of the members.

• On May 16, Richard Henry Lee proposed a measure for Congress to raise an army.
• The proposal failed, but it did have some support, indicating there was a growing belief that Congress would need to field an army.
• On May 21, John Adams wrote, “I can guess that an Army will be posted in New York, and another in Massachusetts, at the Continental Expense.”

The debate over New York continued for the next few days. On the 25th, Congress issued a report with recommendations for the defense of New York:

• Build defensive fortifications at King’s Bridge, which connected Manhattan Island to the mainland.
• Build defensive fortifications in the Hudson Highlands, roughly 40 miles north of New York City.
• Prepare the New York Militia for hostilities.
• Raise 3,000 troops for the garrison at Fort Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and other locations.

On May 31, Congress received a report from Benedict Arnold, who was still at Fort Ticonderoga. He confirmed British troops were gathering at Fort St. John. Congress responded by expanding its authority and asking Connecticut to send 1,000 troops to increase the garrison at Fort Ticonderoga.

• The Connecticut troops were already organized and started for the fort.
• New York started raising its troops for the garrison.

Meanwhile, British officials in Canada feared Congress was organizing an invasion force. On June 1, Congress made it clear it had no intention of doing so “no expedition or incursion ought to be undertaken or made, by any colony, or body of colonists, against or into Canada; and that this Resolve be immediately transmitted to the commander of the forces at Ticonderoga.”

Birth of the Continental Army

As the Siege of Boston continued, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress knew it could not maintain the army, so it appealed to the Continental Congress to take control of it. Around June 10, 1775, John Adams of Massachusetts gave a speech, suggesting it was time for Congress to raise an American Army. 

On June 14, Congress voted to raise the first troops for a new army, approving six companies of riflemen from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. Congress also established a committee to draw up the new army’s rules and regulations. This committee included George Washington and Philip Schuyler.

The next day, June 15, Adams nominated Washington as General and Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. In a unanimous vote, Congress approved the nomination.

• The New England Army of Observation was transformed into the Continental Army and placed under Washington’s command.
• Congress instructed the New England colonies to send more troops to Boston and called on the other colonies to raise regiments.
• Soldiers in the Continental Army fought for Congress, not the individual States.

Congress also worked on formalizing the army by establishing units and troop strengths and approving the appointment of an engineer, adjutant general, paymaster, commissary general, and quartermaster.

Washington Accepts the Appointment

Washington formally accepted the appointment on June 16, saying, “Mr. President, Tho’ I am truly sensible of the high Honour done me, in this Appointment, yet I feel great distress, from a consciousness that my abilities and military experience may not be equal to the extensive and important Trust: However, as the Congress desire it, I will euter upon the momentous duty, and exert every power I possess in their service, and for support of the glorious cause. I beg they will accept my most cordial thanks for this distinguished testimony of their approbation.”

The War Escalates — Battle of Bunker Hill

Despite the organization of the Continental Army, the New England Army was still in operation. On June 16, 1775, its commanding officers decided to build a redoubt on Breed’s Hill, overlooking Boston Harbor.

• The British responded by launching a ground assault on the Charlestown Peninsula, while ships bombarded Charlestown and the American defenses.
• The New England Army engaged in its inaugural battle at Bunker Hill on June 17, 1775. 
• The Americans were forced to retreat from Bunker Hill despite inflicting heavy casualties on British forces. Dr. Joseph Warren was killed during the evacuation.
• General William Howe, who led British forces during the battle, later wrote, “When I look to the consequences of it, in the loss of so many brave Officers, I do it with horror — The Success is too dearly bought.”
• Bunker Hill was a British victory, but it is widely viewed as a moral victory for American forces, who proved they could fight with arguably the best-trained soldiers in the world.

Following the Battle of Bunker Hill, Connecticut placed its troops under the direct command of General Ward.

First Major Generals of the Continental Army

On the 17th, Congress continued organizing the Continental Army and appointed general officers:

• Artemas Ward was appointed as the first Major General and Second-in-Command to Washington. 
• Horatio Gates was appointed Adjutant General with the rank of Brigadier General. 
• Charles Lee was appointed as the second Major General and Third-in-Command.

On June 19th, Congress appointed more general officers:

• Philip Schuyler was appointed as the 3rd Major General.
• Israel Putnam was appointed as the 4th Major General.

Washington Goes to Boston

On June 20, Washington received orders to go to Boston and take command of the army. He was given the authority to make strategic and tactical decisions, as long as he held a Council of War with his officers. Washington reported to the President of Congress, who, at the time, was John Hancock.

Washington departed Philadelphia on June 23 with Philip Schuyler, Charles Lee, Thomas Mifflin, and others. They stopped in New York City on the way to Boston, where Washington declared he intended to resign as Commander-in-Chief when the war was over.

First Brigadier Generals of the Continental Army

Two days later, on June 22, 1775, Congress commissioned Brigadier Generals for the Continental Army. They were:

• Seth Pomeroy
• Richard Montgomery
• David Wooster
• William Heathy
• Joseph Spencer
• John Thomas
• John Sullivan
• Nathanael Greene

AHC Note — The nominations and appointments for the Major and Brigadier Generals created problems within the army due to jealousy. The most famous officer to feel slighted by these appointments was Benedict Arnold. Historians have long pointed to this as a cause of his treason in 1780, when he tried to turn West Point over to the British.

Congress Establishes the First American Currency

Congress authorized $2 million in paper money — the first Continental Currency — to be printed and distributed to help raise arms and supplies for the Continental Army. 

• Congress pledged that all bills of credit would be redeemed. 
• However, the money devalued over time, leading to the slogan, “Not worth a Continental.”

Congress Establishes the Northern Department

The same day Washington left Philadelphia (June 23), Ethan Allen and Seth Warner arrived and spoke to Congress. After the meeting, Congress issued a recommendation for New York to add the Green Mountain Boys to the troops they would provide for the Continental Army.

• Allen and Warner supported sending an American army into Canada.
• The earlier reports from Benedict Arnold indicated that General Guy Carleton was organizing British forces in Canada to invade the Hudson River Valley.

The War Escalates — Congress Authorizes the Invasion of Canada

On June 25, 1775, Congress responded to the threat of an attack by Carleton by establishing the New York Department of the Continental Army. Philip Schuyler was appointed as the commander. Then, on June 27, Congress ordered Schuyler to:

1. Travel to Ticonderoga as soon as possible.
2. Review the condition of the troops, supplies, and boats for transporting the men.
3. Gather intelligence on the intentions of the Indians.
4. Send a report to Congress on the state of the war in Canada.
5. Destroy any British ships or floating artillery batteries on Lake Champlain.

Further, Congress said, “…if General Schuyler finds it practicable, and that it will not be disagreeable to the Canadians, he do immediately take possession of St. Johns, Montreal, and any other parts of the country, and pursue any other measures in Canada, which may have a tendency to promote the peace and security of these Colonies.”

Washington Takes Command of the Continental Army

Washington arrived at Cambridge, Massachusetts, outside Boston, on the evening of July 2. He established his headquarters there on July 3, and General Ward turned the command of the army over to him.

• Horatio Gates, a former British Army officer, came with Washington as his Adjutant General.
• Gates managed administrative tasks and reviewed the number of troops in each regiment.

Washington started reorganizing the army, establishing a proper medical system, and emphasizing sanitation.

• He divided the army into three divisions and six brigades, which followed the British Army’s structure. This helped many of his experienced officers who had served previously in the British Army.
• Washington emphasized the importance of a proper medical corps and assigned a surgeon and support staff to each regiment. Again, this followed the model of the British Army.
• Congress supported this by creating a centralized hospital system that organized and distributed medical supplies.

On July 9, Washington reviewed his troops and had concerns. Not only were there fewer men than he expected, but he felt they were undisciplined and disorganized. Washington met with his officers and asked for their opinions about the troops. They agreed to ask the Massachusetts Provincial Congress and the Continental Congress to help raise volunteers.

• It took time, but Washington did instill some discipline and order in his army.
• Organizational issues remained, especially regarding the size of regiments and officer assignments.
• Washington’s Army around Boston totaled just over 22,000 men and became the main fighting force of the Continental Army.
• Most other troops outside Boston were assigned garrison duty, except for Schuyler’s Northern Army.

The Second Half of 1775

The Invasion of Quebec — Schuyler and his army set out to capture Fort St. John, Montreal, and Quebec. The army moved up the Hudson River Valley into the Richelieu River Valley. After Schuyler fell ill, General Richard Montgomery succeeded him. Montgomery captured Fort Chambly, Fort St. John, and Montreal. Meanwhile, a second expedition, led by Benedict Arnold, pushed across the Maine wilderness toward Quebec City. By early December, both forces were in front of the city, but failed to breach its walls with artillery. With troop enlistments set to expire, they planned a daring attack on the morning of December 31. The attack failed. Montgomery was killed, Daniel Morgan was captured, and Benedict Arnold was wounded. Afterward, Arnold organized what was left of the Northern Army and initiated a siege.

Knox’s Noble Train of Artillery — At Boston, Washington organized an expedition to Fort Ticonderoga to retrieve the artillery. Once the guns were in Boston, they could be used to threaten the British ships in the harbor and force them to evacuate. Washington chose Colonel Henry Knox to lead the expedition, which left Boston around November 17. Knox called it the “Noble Train of Artillery.” He arrived at Fort Ticonderoga on December 5, gathering 60 tons of cannons and other weapons.

1776

Middle and Southern Departments (February 27) — Congress added the Middle Department (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland) and the Southern Department (Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia) to the Continental Army.

Siege of Boston Ends (March 17) — Knox returned to Boston in January with the guns from Ticonderoga. Washington placed them on Dorchester Heights, threatening British warships in the harbor. The British fleet sailed from Boston Harbor on March 17, ending the siege. 

Defensive Fortifications Around New York City (April) — In anticipation of a British attack on New York City, Washington sent General Charles Lee to plan the city’s defenses. By late April, Washington and most of his army were also in New York, and Lee traveled to Charleston, South Carolina, to plan the defenses there.

American Retreat from Quebec (May 6) — British reinforcements arrived at Quebec City on May 6 and immediately attacked the American camp. The Americans fled, and the British pursued them toward Fort Ticonderoga.

Hickey Plot (June 26–28) — A Loyalist plot that included a threat on Washington’s life was uncovered. It involved enlisting American soldiers to aid the Loyalists in a plot devised and funded by Governor William Tryon and Mayor David Matthews. The plot was exposed when Thomas Hickey, a member of Washington’s security detail, known as the “Life Guards,” was arrested on counterfeiting charges. While he was in jail, he spoke about the plan. Hickey was court-martialed for conspiring with the “enemies of the United Colonies.” He was found guilty on June 26, 1776, and sentenced to death by hanging. Hickey was publicly hanged on June 28 in New York City, while roughly 20,000 people watched.

Battle of Sullivan’s Island (June 28) — British forces intended to land in North Carolina in February and join forces with Loyalists. However, the Loyalists were defeated at the Battle of Moore’s Creek Bridge (February 27). The British fleet was redirected to Charleston, South Carolina, where it attacked on June 28. General Charles Lee and roughly 2,000 Continentals helped defend the city, alongside the South Carolina Militia. The British attack failed, forcing the fleet to sail back to New York City. South Carolina remained under American control until 1780.

Declaration of Independence (July 2–4)  —  While Washington prepared to defend New York and American forces were retreating to Ticonderoga, Congress passed the Lee Resolution on July 2, approving the motion to declare independence. Two days later, the Declaration of Independence was approved and printed. Washington received a copy on July 8 and had it read to the troops on July 9. Some of the men celebrated by joining a mob that tore down the statue of King George III at Bowling Green.

New York Campaign (August–November) — British forces gathered around Staten Island in late June to prepare for the long-awaited attack on New York City. After initial peace talks failed, the British invaded Long Island on August 22 and attacked on August 27. After the battle, another round of peace talks was held on Staten Island between Admiral Richard Howe and delegates from Congress. These talks failed, and hostilities resumed. The British invaded Manhattan Island, forcing Washington to abandon New York City and withdraw to White Plains. The British attacked, and Washington and his officers decided to move most of the army across the Hudson River to New Jersey. The British pressed forward and captured Fort Washington on the east side of the Hudson River.

Death of Nathan Hale (September 22) — Washington needed information on British forces after the Battle of Long Island. Nathan Hale volunteered to carry out a spy mission. He was able to infiltrate the British camps, but was captured on September 21. Hale was sentenced to death by General William Howe, who did not give him a trial. According to legend, Hale said, “I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country” before he was hanged on September 22.

Battle of Valcour Island (October 11) — By October, a British fleet was on its way to Fort Ticonderoga, under the command of General Guy Carleton. Determined to slow Carleton’s advance, Benedict Arnold assembled a small fleet of ships and engaged the British on Lake Champlain on October 11. Although the British forced Arnold to fall back, Carleton decided it was too late in the season to attack the fort, so he returned to Canada. Arnold’s successful delaying action allowed the Americans to retain control of the Hudson River Valley for the winter of 1776–1777.

Washington’s Retreat Through New Jersey (November–December) — The British crossed the Hudson and attacked Fort Lee, forcing Washington to retreat through New Jersey. After he crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, the British ended their pursuit and settled into winter quarters. They established outposts throughout New Jersey, including one at Trenton.

Washington Crosses the Delaware (December 25–26) — After months of defeats and retreating, some of Washington’s officers and members of Congress started to question his ability to lead the Continental Army to victory. After Washington received reinforcements, the mood in his camp improved. Washington and his officers decided to make a bold move and attack Trenton. On Christmas Night, his army executed a daring crossing of the Delaware River in a heavy snowstorm and prepared to march to Trenton.

Battle of Trenton (December 26) — Elements of Washington’s Army reached Trenton early in the morning of the 26th and launched a successful attack. They routed the Hessian troops defending the city and then recrossed the Delaware River to Pennsylvania. This was Washington’s first major victory and is considered a major turning point in the war.

1777

Battle of Princeton (January 3) — Eager to strike another blow at the British, Washington recrossed the Delaware River, intending to attack Princeton. Aware of Washington’s movement, British forces attacked near Trenton and pinned him on the banks of the Assunpink Creek. That night, Washington executed another bold move, marching his army around the British, which allowed him to attack Princeton the next morning. Once again, Washington led his troops to victory, stunning the British and reclaiming much of New Jersey. Afterward, Washington encamped his army around Morristown, New Jersey.

Saratoga Campaign (June–October) — During the winter of 1776–1777, British officials approved General John Burgoyne’s plan to invade the Hudson River Valley, capture Albany, New York, and cut New England off from the other colonies. Burgoyne and General Barry St. Leger led forces into the region, forcing the Americans to flee from Fort Ticonderoga. From there, the British slowly made their way toward Albany. However, both forces were met with resistance, leading to the loss of troops and the use of supplies that could not be easily replaced. General Horatio Gates arrived at Albany in August, took command of the Northern Army, and moved to Saratoga. Burgoyne led his army there, and the two armies fought twice. The Americans held their positions and inflicted more casualties on Burgoyne’s Army. Without reinforcements, Burgoyne withdrew, only to have Gates surround him and demand his surrender. After several days of negotiations, Burgoyne surrendered his army.

Philadelphia Campaign (July–December) — Although he was supposed to support General Burgoyne’s campaign, General William Howe took his army from New York City to attack Philadelphia. Washington moved his army to block Howe and defend the city. After winning a hard-fought battle at Brandywine, the British captured Philadelphia. For most of November and December, the two armies fought in the region around the city and the Delaware River, before Washington moved the Continental Army into winter quarters at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. Philadelphia remained under British control over the winter.

Conway Cabal (Fall) — Ongoing dissatisfaction with Washington’s leadership led to a conspiracy known as the “Conway Cabal,” which started in the fall of 1777 but continued while the army was encamped at Valley Forge. The scheme involved members of Congress and some of Washington’s officers, including General Thomas Conway, who sought to replace Washington with General Horatio Gates. The plot was eventually exposed, and the controversy ended.

Winter at Valley Forge (December) — With Philadelphia under British control, Washington and the Continental Army spent the winter at Valley Forge, where they suffered from shortages of food and supplies. However, Baron Friedrich von Steuben helped train the army, teaching it proper military formations and tactics.

1778

Franco-American Alliance (February 6) — After nearly three years of secret negotiations and clandestine military support, France agreed to recognize the United States as an independent nation and sign a formal alliance. The Treaty of Alliance was announced to the Continental Army in May and celebrated in the camp at Valley Forge.

Battle of Monmouth Courthouse (June 28) — After France entered the war, the British decided to withdraw from Philadelphia and return to New York City. The British Army marched north and was attacked by Washington at the Battle of Monmouth. General Charles Lee made tactical mistakes during the battle that gave the British an advantage. However, Washington rallied the troops and turned the tide by placing artillery under the command of General Nathanael Greene on a hill. This allowed the Americans to fire on the British lines and kept the British from taking the right flank of Washington’s Army. After a long day of fighting, hostilities ceased. During the night, General Henry Clinton decided to pull the British Army out and started the march to New York City. Washington followed and returned to New Jersey. This was the last major battle in the Northern Theater.

Battle of Rhode Island (August 29) — For the first time, American and French forces carried out a coordinated attack on British forces that occupied Rhode Island. However, the operation was disorganized, and the French fleet withdrew after their ships suffered damage in a sea battle with the British Navy. The Americans were unable to break through the British lines and eventually withdrew, leaving Rhode Island under British control.

Capture of Savannah (December 29) — With the war in the North at a standstill, the British decided to attack American forces in the South, hoping to take control of the Southern Colonies. In late December, the British attacked Savannah, Georgia, overwhelmed the Americans, and captured the city.

1779

Sullivan’s Expedition (May–November) — American military officials were determined to retaliate after British forces and their Iroquois allies carried out raids on settlements in the Cherry Valley and Wyoming Valley. General John Sullivan and General James Clinton led a large expedition of American soldiers and Oneida warriors against the Cayuga and Seneca. They attacked roughly 40 villages, forcing many Iroquois who supported the British to flee from New York and relocate to refugee camps near Fort Niagara.

Siege of Savannah (September–October) — After capturing Savannah, Georgia, the British took Augusta. General Benjamin Lincoln responded by marching his army out of Charleston, South Carolina, intending to drive the British out of Georgia, but was defeated at Stono Ferry. Afterward, the French fleet agreed to support Lincoln in an attack on Savannah, and both forces arrived there in September. They laid siege to the city for a month. After a failed assault on the British defenses, the French withdrew, forcing Lincoln to follow suit and return to Charleston. Afterward, British military leaders proceeded to attack Charleston.

1780

Mutiny of the Connecticut Line (May 25) — Desperate for food, Connecticut troops encamped at Basking Ridge, near Morristown, tried to leave to look for food. There was a brief altercation, and Colonel Return Jonathan Meigs was injured. Colonel Walter Stewart of Pennsylvania convinced the men to return to their tents, and a shipment of supplies arrived two days later. The winter of 1779–1780 was one of the coldest on record, and the army’s winter encampment is referred to as the “Hard Winter at Morristown.”

Siege of Charleston (April–May) — Lincoln and his army returned to Charleston and started to prepare for a British attack. Meanwhile, General Henry Clinton organized an expedition and sailed from New York to attack Charleston. The British landed and laid siege to the city on April 1. For the next six weeks, the British slowly advanced while Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton cut off American communication and supply lines in a violent campaign that earned him the nickname “Bloody Ban.” Lincoln was eventually forced to surrender the city and his army. It was the largest British victory of the war and secured control of most of South Carolina.

Mutiny of the Connecticut Line (June) — New York troops at Fort Stanwix deserted, complaining about the lack of clothing and not being paid, and saying they would join the British. Lieutenant Abraham Hardenbergh followed them with a contingent of Oneidas. When he caught up with the deserters, Hardenbergh had the Oneidas shoot and kill 13 of them.

Battle of Camden (August 16) — Following the capture of Charleston, British forces, led by General Charles Cornwallis, looked to invade North Carolina. Congress put General Horatio Gates in command of the Southern Department to counter Cornwallis. Gates organized a new army and marched into South Carolina. Cornwallis responded by assembling his army and marching to meet Gates. On the night of August 15, lead elements of both armies stumbled into each other at Camden. The next day, the two armies assembled to fight in an open field battle. Gates made a critical tactical mistake by placing his inexperienced militia across from experienced, battle-hardened British troops. The Americans were quickly routed, and Gates famously fled from the battlefield. With the victory, the British expanded their control of South Carolina and prepared to invade North Carolina.

The Treason of Benedict Arnold (September 23) — Upset over his treatment by Congress and other officers, Benedict Arnold plotted to turn West Point over to the British. He coordinated with General Henry Clinton through Major John André. The plot was exposed when André was captured on September 23. André was executed as a spy. Arnold escaped and joined the British Army. Unlike Nathan Hale, André was given a military trial.

Greene Takes Command of the Southern Department (December 3) — Following the disaster at Camden, Congress allowed Washington to choose the next commander of the Southern Department. He chose Nathanael Greene, who arrived in North Carolina in early December. The army he inherited was weak and demoralized, but it included General Daniel Morgan and his men. Greene made a bold move and divided his army. Greene moved to Cheraw and sent Morgan west toward Cowpens.

1781

First Mutiny of the Pennsylvania Line (January 1–10) — Troops from the Pennsylvania Line tried to leave their camp at Morristown. The men killed one officer and wounded two others before marching toward Princeton. General Anthony Wayne notified Washington and then proceeded to negotiate with the mutineers. An agreement was reached, and the men returned to the army. However, nearly 1,400 of them were discharged by January 29.

Battle of Cowpens (January 17) — Cornwallis was unsure of Greene’s intentions in the South, so he sent Tarleton westward to protect the outpost at Ninety-Six and find Morgan. Tarleton approached Morgan near the Broad River. Morgan was prepared and lured Tarleton into a trap that allowed the Americans to rout the British. Tarleton escaped, but the defeat forced Cornwallis to delay his plans for North Carolina.

Mutiny of the New Jersey Line (January 20–27) — New Jersey troops stationed at Pompton, New Jersey, deserted their camp. Washington responded by sending General Robert Howe to negotiate with the deserters. Washington joined Howe, and they proceeded to pull the ringleaders from the ranks and executed two of the three.

Race to the Dan (January–February) — After Cowpens, Cornwallis went after Morgan, while both Morgan and Greene marched into North Carolina, moving northeast. North Carolina Militia forces engaged the British, slowing their pursuit. Greene considered making a stand at Guilford Court House, but was convinced it was best to avoid battle, move into Virginia, and cross the Dan River. Morgan was suffering from an illness, so Greene gave the command of his rear guard to Colonel Otho Holland Williams, who was assisted by Henry “Light-Horse Harry” Lee and his cavalry, “Lee’s Legion.” Williams and Lee covered Greene’s march, and he crossed the Dan River on February 13. The rear guard crossed the next day. Cornwallis was unable to cross the river due to a lack of boats and high water.

Guilford Court House (March 15) — After failing to catch Greene, Cornwallis was forced to move to Hillsborough to rest and resupply his army. Greene marched his army back into North Carolina, where he was joined by militia forces from the Carolinas and Virginia. Cornwallis returned to the field, intending to engage Greene. On March 15, the two armies fought at Guilford Court House. The British won, but they suffered heavy casualties. Greene withdrew, and Cornwallis marched to Wilmington, North Carolina.

Second Mutiny of the Pennsylvania Line (May) — General Wayne arrested one of his men on May 20 and sentenced him to death. Wayen’s soldiers protested, so he arrested the leaders of the mutiny and executed four of them. Five days later, a dozen of Wayne’s men led another protest over not being paid by Congress. Wayne had them arrested and sentenced them to death. The firing squad was made up of their friends. After the mutineers were executed, the trouble in Wayne’s ranks ended.

“We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again.” — Greene intentionally fought to preserve his army and slowly wear down the British Army. Meanwhile, Cornwallis sought to cut the American supply lines, but was unable to do so, and decided to move into Virginia. Greene worked with various militia forces to harass the British in South Carolina at places like Fort Watson and Hobkirk’s Hill. In almost every engagement, the Americans were beaten, but were able to regroup and return to the field, while the British continued to lose men and use up supplies. In May, British forces abandoned the outpost at Camden. Greene sent American forces to lay siege to Augusta, while he did the same to Ninety-Six. Slowly, British control was reduced to Savannah and Charleston. Greene famously summed up his strategy by saying, “We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again.”

Battle of Eutaw Springs (September 8) — After withdrawing from Ninety-Six, Greene rested his army, gathered reinforcements, and launched a surprise attack on British forces at Eutaw Springs. The battle started early in the morning with minor skirmishes and escalated as the Americans pushed toward the Roche Plantation, where the main battle occurred. Attacks and counterattacks continued throughout the day, and Greene eventually withdrew. The British suffered heavy losses and returned to Charleston. This was the last major battle of the war outside of Virginia.

Yorktown Campaign (September–October) — Cornwallis moved into Virginia in May and conducted raids throughout the state. On August 1, he settled in at Yorktown, which he planned to use as a base to resupply his army and continue his campaign in Virginia. When Washington learned this, he ordered American forces in the South to block land routes out of Yorktown and, working with the French Army and French Navy, marched southward toward Virginia.

• On September 5, the French fleet defeated the British Navy at the Battle of the Capes. The British ships were forced to sail back to New York, and the French blockaded the Chesapeake Bay, trapping Cornwallis at Yorktown.
• Two weeks later, American and French forces assembled at Williamsburg, Virginia.
• On September 28, American and French forces arrived at Yorktown and started to bombard the city.
• Over the next three weeks, the allied forces slowly chipped away at British defenses. 
• On October 14, American and French forces attacked strategic British positions outside of Yorktown, capturing Redoubt Number Nine and Redoubt Number Ten..
• The British tried to escape Yorktown on October 16 by crossing the York River. However, a storm blew in, and the plan was ruined. They were forced to halt the operation. 
• Cornwallis met with his officers, and they agreed they had no option but to surrender.

On October 19, 1781, the Articles of Capitulation were signed, and Cornwallis surrendered more than 7,000 officers and men.

• Cornwallis refused to attend the surrender ceremony. He sent General Charles O’Hara in his place. 
• O’Hara offered the sword of surrender to General Jean Comte de Rochambeau, who refused and directed O’Hara to give it to Washington. 
• Washington also refused and instructed O’Hara to give it to his second in command, Benjamin Lincoln. 
• At that point, the British soldiers laid down their arms between the American and French armies.

1782

Washington’s Army returned to New York, where he planned to continue pressing the British. However, the French were not interested, and Congress was hesitant to incur the expense. As a result, no major military events took place in 1782.

Peace Talks (April–November) — Even before the British surrender at Yorktown, Congress sought to make peace with Britain. In 1779, Congress sent John Adams to Europe to begin peace negotiations. Adams struggled with the task, and Congress assigned Benjamin Franklin and others to assist in 1781. British negotiator Richard Oswald arrived in Paris on April 12, 1782, to begin official peace talks with the American commissioners. A preliminary peace treaty was agreed to on November 30. However, further negotiations were needed to resolve issues between Britain, France, and Spain.

1783

Newburgh Conspiracy (March 15) — During the winter of 1782–1783, some officers in the Continental Army decided to challenge the authority of Congress over the lack of pay. In March, a letter circulated through the Continental Army’s camp at Newburgh, New York, calling for an open meeting to discuss the issue. Washington responded by issuing General Orders that seemed to indicate to the officers that he agreed with them. The gathering was postponed until March 15. The officers convened and were surprised when Washington joined. He gently scolded them, saying they violated the principles they had fought for. He defended Congress, insisting they intended to fulfill their promises to the officers. Washington pulled a letter from his pocket to read to them, but paused. He put on his glasses, saying that he “begged the indulgence of his audience while he put them on, observing at the same time that he had grown grey in their service and now found himself growing blind…” It was an emotional moment that impacted the officers, who voted their thanks to Washington, ending the threat against Congress.

March 19 — Washington was notified that a preliminary peace treaty had been agreed to, and started making plans to reduce the Continental Army.

Society of the Cincinnati (May) — Led by Henry Knox, the officers from the Continental Army organized a fraternal organization. It was named after Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus, a Roman military leader who gave up his political and military power after defeating the Roman Empire’s enemies. The Society continues to operate, calling itself the “nation’s oldest patriotic organization.”

Pennsylvania Mutiny (June 20) — 400 Continental troops stationed in Philadelphia marched to confront Congress, which was meeting at the Pennsylvania State House. The soldiers surrounded the building and demanded their pay. Congress called on John Dickinson, the Governor of Pennsylvania, to restore order. Dickinson refused to call out the militia, angering the members of Congress, who relocated to Princeton. This mutiny ended when Dickinson finally called up the Pennsylvania Militia. Before the mutineers surrendered, Dickinson gave them a speech regarding their behavior.

Treaty of Paris (September 3) — Negotiators signed the treaty. It was ratified by Congress on January 14, 1784. Official copies were exchanged on May 12, 1784.

November 3 — The Continental Army was reduced to roughly 1,000 troops. 

British Evacuation of New York City (November 25) — British forces left New York City, and some of the last remnants of the Continental Army marched in, led by Major General Henry Knox. The last British ship left New York Harbor on December 4, 1783.

Washington’s Resignation (December 22) — On December 4, 1783, Washington met with his officers for the last time at Fraunces Tavern in New York City. Then, on December 22, he appeared before Congress, which was meeting in Annapolis, Maryland. Washington handed his commission and resignation speech to the President of Congress, Thomas Mifflin. Washington said:

“Happy in the confirmation of our independence and sovereignty, and pleased with the opportunity afforded the United States of becoming a respectable nation, I resign with satisfaction the appointment I accepted with diffidence; a diffidence in my abilities to accomplish so arduous a task; which however was superseded by a confidence in the rectitude of our cause, the support of the supreme power of the Union, and the patronage of Heaven.”

The Post-War Army

• By early 1784, the United States had only 700 enlisted soldiers, and they were in  Colonel Henry Jackson’s 1st American Regiment. On June 2, 1784, Congress officially abolished Jackson’s Regiment.
• Congress retained only 80 privates and a proportionate number of officers. No officer was allowed to hold a rank above Captain.
• These troops were assigned to guard military supplies at Fort Pitt, West Point, and other sites.
• Captain John Doughty led the force at West Point. This unit was descended from Alexander Hamilton’s Provincial Company of New York Artillery, or “Hamilton’s Own.” This unit is the only one that still exists in the U.S. Army.

AP US History Alignment

The Continental Army  is part of the following units, topics, and chapters in the AP US History curriculum:

Unit 3: 1754–1800

• 3.5 — The American Revolution

Notes

• The Road to Revolution (1763–1775)
• America Secedes from the Empire (1775–1783)