Essential Facts
- Erik the Red explored Greenland in 892 and returned with colonists in 895.
- In 1488, Bartholomeu Dias became the first European to round the Cape of Good Hope.
- Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile agreed to sponsor Christopher Columbus’s First Voyage in 1492.
- In 1497, John Cabot reached Newfoundland, sailing for King Henry VII of England.
- Vasco da Gama discovered a sea route from Europe to India in 1498.
- Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean in 1513.
- Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe, from 1519 to 1522.
- In 1524, Jacques Cartier made his first of three voyages to North America.
- Pedro Menéndez de Avilés founded St. Augustine, the first permanent European settlement in the present-day United States, in 1565.
- From 1577 to 1580, Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe.
- In 1585, Walter Raleigh funded the first expedition to Roanoke Island.
- Bartholomew Gosnold led an expedition in 1602 that explored the New England coast, discovering and naming Cape Cod and Martha’s Vineyard.
- Jamestown was established in 1607, becoming the first permanent English settlement in North America.
- In 1608, Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec City, the first permanent French settlement in North America.
- More than 100 English colonists sailed to New England on the Mayflower, where they established Plymouth Colony in 1620.
European Adventurers, A to Z
AHC Note — Although this is an extensive list, we will continue to expand it as we add entries covering the Age of Exploration.
A
José de Acosta (1540–1600) — A Spanish Jesuit missionary who worked in Peru from 1572 to 1586, José de Acosta promoted Catholic teachings among Indigenous peoples and African slaves while opposing harsh colonial policies. He helped create Doctrina Cristiana, the first book printed in Peru, and authored Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias (1590). Acosta later advised King Philip II and contributed to early ethnographic and religious scholarship in the Americas.
Leo Africanus (c. 1494–c. 1554) — A 16th-century historian and traveler born al-Hassan ibn Muhammad al-Wazzan in Granada, Spain. After being captured by Christian corsairs and freed by Pope Leo X, he wrote The History and Description of Africa, a detailed account of African geography, cultures, and empires such as Mali, Songhai, and Hausa. His work remained the most important European source on West Africa until the late 18th century and influenced geographers such as Richard Hakluyt.
Francisco de Aguilar (1469–1561) — A Spanish Conquistador who served as one of Hernán Cortés’s officers during the conquest of the Aztec Empire. After gaining wealth through encomiendas, he gave up his property and became a Dominican priest in 1529. In old age, he wrote a brief, direct account of the conquest that offers valuable insight into its dangers and moral questions.
Pedro de Alvarado (1485–1541) — A Spanish Conquistador and principal captain under Hernán Cortés, Alvarado played a central role in the conquest of the Aztecs and later led violent campaigns in Guatemala and El Salvador. Known for extreme brutality, he became Guatemala’s Governor in 1524 and left a controversial legacy marked by ambition and conquest.
Samuel Argall (?–1626) — Samuel Argall was an English sea captain and colonial administrator in the early 1600s. He is best known for discovering a shorter sea route to the Virginia Colony, kidnapping Pocahontas, and serving as the Deputy Governor of Virginia.
Pedro Menendez de Aviles (1519–1574) — De Aviles was a distinguished Spanish admiral and explorer who played a pivotal role in the early colonization of the Americas. Tasked with establishing a Spanish foothold in Florikida, he founded St. Augustine in 1565. His primary objective was to defend Spanish interests and counter the encroachment of French and English rivals in the region. His efforts solidified Spanish control in Florida.
Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón (1480–1526) — De Ayllón was a Spanish Conquistador and explorer who played an important role in early Spanish efforts to colonize North America. In 1526, he led an expedition to what is now the southeastern coast of the United States, specifically present-day South Carolina. He established the short-lived colony of San Miguel de Guadalupe. However, the colony faced significant challenges and was quickly abandoned. Ayllón played an important role in the early colonization of what became the Province of South Carolina.
B
Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475–1517) — A Spanish Conquistador who crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513 and became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean. His discovery strengthened Spain’s expansion into the Americas and supported later conquests in Peru, Chile, Mexico, and California. Accused of treason by Governor Pedrarias Dávila, he was executed in 1517.
Arthur Barlowe (1550–1620) — An English cartographer and explorer who helped lead a 1584 reconnaissance voyage for Walter Raleigh to identify a site for an English colony in North America. His highly favorable report describing Roanoke Island as rich, abundant, and welcoming convinced Raleigh to choose it for England’s first attempted colony.
Andrew Battel (c. 1589–1614) — An English traveler, soldier, and trader, Andrew Battel was captured by the Portuguese during a 1589 voyage and spent years in Angola, serving as a prisoner, soldier, and coastal trader. His experiences among African peoples, including the Jagas, were later recorded by Samuel Purchas, providing early English ethnographic descriptions of the Atlantic world’s cultures, flora, and fauna.
Martin Behaim (1459–1507) — A German cartographer from Nuremberg who created the oldest surviving globe in 1492. His work represented the European understanding of geography before Columbus’s voyage, showing a smaller Atlantic Ocean, western routes to Asia, and several mythical lands, including Prester John’s kingdom and the islands of Antillia and St. Brendan.
Juan de Bermúdez (c. 1450–c. 1520) — De Bermúdez was a Spanish explorer and navigator who is believed to have discovered the uninhabited islands now known as Bermuda in the early 16th century. The islands were named after him.
Willem Blaeu (1571–1638) — A leading Dutch cartographer whose globes, sea charts, and maps became standard works in the 17th century. His productions, including the Nova Belgica et Anglia Nova (1635), were known for detail and artistry, and his atlases helped shape European understanding of world geography.
Hernán Pérez Bocanegra (1500–1567) — Bocanegra was a Spanish Conquistador and one of the first European settlers in New Mexico. In 1598, he joined the expedition led by Juan de Oñate to establish a colony in the region. Bocanegra played a role in the early colonization of New Mexico and the interactions between the Spanish and the people living in the area.
Saint Brendan the Navigator (486?–575) — An Irish monk and abbot whose legendary westward voyage was recorded in the late 9th–early 10th century Navigatio. The tale described miraculous encounters and a search for the Island of the Blessed, influencing medieval geography and inspiring later efforts to locate his mythical island.
Theodor de Bry — A Flemish engraver (1528–1598) who created influential images of the Americas based on explorers’ drawings, including John White’s Roanoke watercolors for Thomas Harriot’s Briefe and True Report (1590). His works, Grands Voyages and Petits Voyages, shaped European views of native peoples.
C
Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (c. 1490–1557) — A Spanish Conquistador and explorer who joined Pánfilo de Narváez’s failed Florida expedition in 1527. After surviving a shipwreck and enslavement, he traveled across present-day Texas and northern Mexico, living among Native peoples as a healer and trader. His 1536 return to Spain and later writings provided some of the earliest European accounts of the North American interior. Appointed Governor of the Rio de la Plata, he was later deposed, imprisoned, and exiled.
John Cabot (c.1450–c.1499) — A Venetian mariner who sailed for England under King Henry VII, Cabot is credited with the official European discovery of North America in 1497. Commanding the Matthew, he reached Newfoundland, believing it was part of Asia. He explored the coast briefly before returning to England. In 1498, he launched a second expedition with five ships, but all but one vanished without a trace. Cabot’s voyages provided England with its first claim to the New World.
Sebastian Cabot (c.1474–1557) — The son of John Cabot, and an explorer, cartographer, and courtier who worked for both Spain and England. Though his only confirmed voyage (1526–1530) failed, he served as Spain’s pilot major, regulating navigation and chart-making. Later, as Governor of the Muscovy Company, he oversaw voyages seeking a Northeast Passage and helped establish profitable trade with Russia. While his own expeditions brought little success, his administrative work advanced European exploration and trained English mariners for future ventures.
Pedro Álvares Cabral (c. 1467–c. 1519) — A Portuguese navigator who led a 1500 expedition to India and accidentally landed in Brazil, claiming it for Portugal under the Treaty of Tordesillas. His voyage expanded European knowledge of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, strengthened Portugal’s maritime empire, and demonstrated the potential of sea-based trade routes connecting Europe to Asia and the Americas.
Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo (c. 1500–1543) — Cabrillo was a Portuguese explorer who sailed for the Spanish Empire. He is known for leading the first recorded European expedition to explore the California coast. In 1542, Cabrillo set sail from Mexico with the goal of finding a northwest passage to Asia. He explored the California coastline, reaching as far north as present-day Oregon. Cabrillo’s voyage provided valuable insights into the region’s geography and the indigenous peoples encountered along the way. His exploration marked an important early European contact with California and laid the foundation for future Spanish and European presence in the area.
Alvise de Cadamosto (c. 1432–c. 1480) — A Venetian merchant who sailed for Portugal, Cadamosto explored the northwest coast of Africa, the Cape Verde Islands, and the Bissagos Islands. Recruited by Prince Henry the Navigator, he led expeditions beginning in 1455 and produced influential reports on 15th-century European exploration and West African trade.
William Camden (1551–1623) — An English historian whose works Britannia (1586) and Annales (1625) documented Britain’s past and Queen Elizabeth I’s reign. Camden’s scholarship shaped English historical writing, influenced contemporaries like John Stowe, and provided an intellectual framework later used to justify England’s imperial and colonial ambitions.
Jacques Cartier (1491–1557) — Cartier was a French explorer who led three voyages to North America between 1534 and 1541 in search of the Northwest Passage and mineral wealth. He explored parts of Newfoundland, New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence River, Stadacona, and Hochelaga, interacting with Indigenous peoples such as the Micmac and St. Lawrence Iroquois. His expeditions mapped key areas of eastern Canada and supported France’s territorial claims, though strained relations, failed colonization efforts, and mistaken discoveries of worthless minerals ended his role in exploration.
Samuel de Champlain (c.1570–1635) — A French explorer and cartographer, Champlain founded Quebec in 1608 and played a central role in establishing New France. His alliances with the Algonquin and Huron, detailed maps, and published accounts promoted French settlement and expanded European knowledge of North America.
King Charles I (1500–1558) — Charles was ruler of Spain as Charles I and Holy Roman Emperor as Charles V. He inherited vast territories, including Castile, Aragón, Burgundy, Austria, and Spain’s possessions in the Americas, making him one of the most powerful monarchs of his time. His reign oversaw major expansion in the New World and immense wealth from silver and trade, but he faced religious conflict with Martin Luther and political challenges across his diverse empire. He abdicated in 1555–1556, dividing his lands between his son Philip II and his brother Ferdinand.
Chimalpahin (1579–1660) — A Nahuatl historian (1579–1660) born in Amecameca, Mexico, who later lived in Mexico City and wrote extensive annals in the Nahuatl language. His works, including Relaciones and Diario, recorded about 1,000 years of precontact and colonial history, focusing on the Chalco region. Drawing on elders, codices, and local records, Chimalpahin preserved indigenous perspectives, making his histories among the most valuable accounts of native culture and society during Spanish rule.
Pedro Cieza de León (1520–1560) — A Spanish Conquistador and chronicler who traveled to Peru after the conquest and produced one of the most accurate accounts of Inca society. His writings described cities like Cuzco, explained the use of khipus, and acknowledged the suffering of Indigenous peoples under Spanish rule.
Jorge d’Albuquerque Coelho (1539–1601) — A Portuguese military leader and sailor from Pernambuco, Brazil, who became renowned for surviving a violent Atlantic shipwreck. His experience inspired the 1601 narrative Shipwreck Suffered by Jorge D’Albuquerque Coelho, which blended accounts of maritime danger with strong religious themes common to the European age of discovery.
Bartholomew Columbus (c. 1454–1514) — Brother of Christopher Columbus, Bartholomew was a Genoese mapmaker and navigator who supported Spain’s early colonization of the Americas. He served as Governor of Hispaniola, founded Santo Domingo, and enforced tribute from native populations, which fueled rebellion. Though he struggled to maintain order and was removed from power in 1500, he later joined Christopher’s fourth voyage and remained in Hispaniola until his death in 1514.
Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) — A Genoese navigator and explorer who completed four transatlantic voyages between 1492 and 1504 under the sponsorship of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Seeking a westward route to Asia, he instead reached the Caribbean, opening sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. His expeditions initiated European colonization but also led to the enslavement, exploitation, and suffering of native peoples, making him a figure of both global significance and lasting controversy.
Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (c. 1467–1517) — A Spanish Conquistador who led one of the first expeditions from Cuba to the mainland of Mexico. In 1517, he explored the Yucatán Peninsula, where his party encountered the Maya and suffered heavy losses.
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado (1510–1554) — Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition from 1540 to 1542 in search of the fabled cities of Cíbola and Quivira. His journey through the American Southwest brought the first European exploration of areas including the Grand Canyon and the Rio Grande Valley. Coronado’s forces fought and brutalized Indigenous peoples, especially during the Tiguex War, and found no wealth. The expedition failed, leaving him injured, financially ruined, and disgraced, though it expanded Spain’s geographic knowledge of North America.
Hernán Cortés (1485–1547) — A Spanish Conquistador who led the expedition that brought down the Aztec Empire and established New Spain. Beginning in 1519, he used native alliances, military force, and translators like Malinche to seize Tenochtitlán in 1521. Cortés imposed Spanish rule, Catholicism, and the encomienda system, reshaping Mexico and laying the foundation for Spanish colonization in the Americas.
D
John Davis (c. 1550–1605) — Davis was one of Queen Elizabeth I’s “Sea Dogs” and led various expeditions in search of the Northwest Passage. He also led expeditions to the East Indies and is credited with discovering the Falkland Islands in 1592.
Hernando de Soto (c.1500–1542) — A Spanish Conquistador who led a major expedition through the southeastern United States from 1539 to 1542. His journey expanded Spain’s claims in North America while inflicting severe violence, disease, and disruption on native American societies across the region.
Bartholomeu Dias (c. 1450–1500) — A Portuguese navigator who became the first European to round the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, demonstrating that Africa could be circumnavigated and opening the route to the Indian Ocean. Driven off course by storms, he named the landmark Cabo Tormentoso, which was later renamed the Cape of Good Hope. His achievement paved the way for Vasco da Gama’s successful voyage to India, though Dias received limited recognition and died in 1500 when his ship wrecked near the cape he had discovered.
Francis Drake (c. 1540–1596) — Drake was an English admiral, explorer, and privateer whose raids against Spain and circumnavigation of the globe (1577–1580) made him a national hero in England and a feared enemy in Spain. Rising from humble beginnings, Drake gained fame through maritime ventures, political roles, and his part in the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Despite a failed final expedition to Panama, his legacy endured, celebrated in England and vilified in Spain as the notorious “Dragon” of the seas. Drake was one of Queen Elizabeth I’s “Sea Dogs.”
E
Richard Eden (1521?–1576) — Eden was an English translator and cosmographer who introduced Spanish and Portuguese accounts of exploration to English readers. His translations, including Pietro Martire’s Decades and works by Muenster and Cabot, shaped English knowledge of the New World and influenced figures such as Francis Drake and William Shakespeare. His edition of Arte de Navigae featured the earliest printed map of America in England, establishing him as an early leader in English geographic and oceanic literature.
Queen Elizabeth I (1533–1603) — Elizabeth was one of the most famous monarchs of England. She played an important role in the development of Colonial America by supporting Walter Raleigh’s expeditions, which led to the founding of the Roanoke Island Colony, the first English settlement in North America.
Leif Erikson (c. 985–c. 1025) — Viking explorer who, after interviewing Bjarni Herjulfsson and purchasing his ship, sailed to North America and made landfall at three locations, which he called Helluland (“Slab-Land”), Markland (“Forest Land”), and Vinland (“Wineland”). His voyages are evidence of pre-Columbian European contact with the New World. Erikson was the son of Erik the Red and is widely recognized as having introduced Christianity to Iceland and Greenland.
Erik the Red (c. 950–c. 1003) — Erik the Red explored Greenland in 892. He had been banished from Iceland for manslaughter. He returned to Greenland with colonists in 895
Juan de Escalante (?–1519) — A Spanish soldier and lieutenant of Hernán Cortés, Juan de Escalante played a key role in the early stages of the Spanish conquest of Mexico in 1519. As commander of Veracruz, he led an entrada northward with Spanish troops and Totonac allies but was defeated by Aztec soldiers. Escalante and several Spaniards were killed, and one captured Spaniard’s severed head was presented to Moctezuma II. His death weakened Spanish forces and heightened tensions between Cortés and the Aztecs.
F
Ferdinand of Aragon (1452–1516) and Isabella of Castile (1451–1504) — Catholic monarchs whose marriage united Spain’s largest kingdoms, Castile and Aragon. They completed the Reconquista, enforced religious uniformity through the Inquisition, and expelled Jews and Muslims. They sponsored Columbus’s 1492 voyage, initiating Spain’s overseas empire. Their policies shaped early modern Spain and expanded European influence in the Americas.
King Francis I (1494–1547) — Francis was the King of France from 1515 to 1547. He sponsored several exploratory expeditions, including those led by Giovanni da Verrazzano, Jacques Cartier, and Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval. These expeditions aimed to find new trade routes and territories and expand French influence in North America.
Martin Frobisher (1539–1594) — Frobisher was an English explorer, privateer, and naval officer who led three unsuccessful Arctic voyages in the 1570s in search of the Northwest Passage and gold. Though he failed to achieve these goals, his expeditions marked the first European contact with the Inuit and influenced later English exploration in the New World. Frobisher was one of Queen Elizabeth I’s “Sea Dogs.”
G
Vasco da Gama (1469–1524) — A Portuguese explorer who discovered a sea route to India in 1498, giving Portugal control over the spice trade and helping establish a global commercial empire. His voyages secured key trading bases in Ceylon, Malacca, the Spice Islands, and Macao. Da Gama’s exploration advanced European maritime power and indirectly influenced the era of exploration that led to the colonization of the Americas.
Humphrey Gilbert (c. 1539–1583) — An English soldier, explorer, and early advocate for colonization in North America. Granted a patent by Queen Elizabeth I to establish settlements, he promoted the search for the Northwest Passage and authored A Discourse of a Discoverie for a New Passage to Cataia in 1576. His voyages in 1578 and 1583 ended in failure, with his death at sea marking an early but influential stage in England’s colonial ambitions. Gilbert was one of Queen Elizabeth I’s “Sea Dogs.”
Ferdinando Gorges (1566–1647) — An English colonial promoter who helped organize the London and Plymouth Companies and later led the Council for New England. He played a major role in early attempts to settle Maine and influence colonial governance, though he never visited the lands he claimed.
Bartholomew Gosnold (1571–1607) — an English explorer and colonizer who played a key role in early English ventures to North America. In 1602, he led an expedition to explore the New England coast, discovering and naming Cape Cod and Martha’s Vineyard. Gosnold’s voyage laid the groundwork for future English settlements in the region and contributed to early 17th-century colonization efforts. Gosnold was one of the first colonists at Jamestown and a member of the Governor’s Council.
Richard Grenville (1541–1591) — An English naval officer and leader of the Roanoke expeditions of 1585 and 1587, appointed through his family ties to Walter Raleigh. His harsh reprisals against Native American Indian groups and the failure to resupply the colony during the 1588 war with the Spanish Armada contributed to Roanoke’s disappearance. He died in 1591 after a fierce naval battle in the Azores, later celebrated in the poem The Last Fight of the Revenge. Grenville was one of Queen Elizabeth I’s “Sea Dogs.”
Juan de Grijalva (1489–1527) — A Spanish Conquistador who led a 1518 expedition from Cuba to the Yucatán and Veracruz, where he first heard reports of the Aztec Empire. Unlike Hernán Cortés, he focused on exploration and trade rather than conquest, which frustrated his soldiers. After returning to Cuba, many of his men joined Cortés’s campaign. Grijalva later quarreled with Cortés and died in 1527 after being ambushed in Panama.
Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) — Dutch jurist and philosopher whose treatise Mare liberum (The Free Sea) argued that the oceans belonged to all nations and could not be controlled like land. His ideas challenged Portuguese and papal claims over maritime trade and laid the groundwork for modern international law. Grotius’s later work, De jure belli ac pacis, further developed legal principles governing war, peace, and diplomacy, and influenced subsequent Western and American political thought.
Gonzalo Guerrero (1470–c. 1536) — A Spanish sailor who was shipwrecked off the Yucatán6 Peninsula in 1511, captured by the Maya, and later integrated into their society. He married a Maya woman, trained native warriors, and led resistance against Spanish conquest. Refusing rescue by Cortés in 1519, he fought Spain for over 15 years until his death in Honduras around 1536.
H
Richard Hakluyt the Elder (1530–c. 1591) — Hakluyt helped lay the ideological foundation for English colonization of North America. Working closely with his younger cousin, Richard Hakluyt the Younger, he promoted overseas expansion and influenced England’s exploration policy. In 1585, he published Inducements to the Liking of the Voyage, which outlined the religious, economic, and political benefits of colonization.
Richard Hakluyt the Younger (c. 1551–1616) — Hakluyt was an English clergyman, geographer, and writer who carried on the work of his cousin, Richard Hakluyt the Elder. He continued to collect and publish accounts of voyages and explorations, further promoting English expansion and colonization. Hakluyt the Younger played a crucial role in disseminating knowledge about overseas exploration and encouraging English colonization efforts during the early 17th century.
Thomas Harriot (c.1560–1621) — An English mathematician, astronomer, and ethnographer (1560–1621) who accompanied the Roanoke expedition and produced A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia (1588, expanded 1590). His work provided Europe with one of the first detailed accounts of Native American Indian life, natural resources, and geography in coastal North Carolina. Supported by Walter Ralegh, Harriot’s observations influenced English colonization efforts and later contributed to mathematics, including the foundations for modern algebra.
John Hawkins (1532–1595) — Hawkins was an English mariner, merchant, and slave trader who played a central role in establishing England’s involvement in the Transatlantic Slave Trade. He conducted several voyages transporting enslaved Africans to the Americas, often with royal support, and later served as treasurer and comptroller of the navy. Hawkins helped modernize England’s fleet, fought in the Spanish Armada campaign of 1588, co-founded the Chest of Chatham for disabled sailors, and died with Francis Drake during a failed expedition to Panama in 1595. Hawkins was one of Queen Elizabeth I’s “Sea Dogs.”
Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) — Henry was a Portuguese prince born in 1394 who played a major role in early European exploration during the 15th Century, and is referred to as the “Father of the Age of Exploration. He is often credited with founding a “school for navigators.” He sponsored numerous voyages into the “Sea of Darkness,” along the west coast of Africa, promoted advances in navigation and shipbuilding, and helped establish trading posts that linked Europe with African gold and slave markets. He helped build the foundation for Portugal’s Maritime Empire. He was also known as “Infante Henrique.”
Henry Hudson (c. 1565–1611) — Hudson was an early 17th-century English navigator and explorer who sailed for both English and Dutch sponsors in search of a northeast and Northwest Passage to Asia. He explored areas including present-day New York Harbor, the Hudson River, Hudson Strait, and Hudson Bay. Although he never found the Northwest Passage, his expeditions laid the foundation for English claims to Canada and the Dutch settlement of New Netherland, which later became the Province of New York. His final voyage in 1611 ended in mutiny. His crew abandoned him, and he was never seen again.
I
David Ingram (c. 1542–c. 1583) — An English sailor active in the late 1560s who claimed to have walked about 2,000 miles from the Gulf of Mexico to Cape Breton after being stranded in North America. His story, published by Richard Hakluyt in 1589, described native societies and wildlife but was later dismissed by historians as fictional. No copies of Ingram’s own written account have survived.
J
King James I (1566–1625) — James I followed Queen Elizabeth I on the English throne. During his reign (1603–1625), multiple attempts were made to establish colonies in North America. During his reign, the two most significant English colonies in North America were established — Jamestown and Plymouth.
King John III of Portugal (1502–1557) — John III ruled Portugal during a period of global expansion and internal decline. He promoted colonization in Brazil, founding São Vicente and São Paulo in 1532 and dividing the colony into 15 hereditary captaincies. His later establishment of governors general and viceroys centralized control. Despite colonial achievements, his reign was marked by debt, corruption, failed diplomacy, and weak leadership, all of which diminished Portugal’s power.
Louis Jolliet (1645–1700) — A French Canadian explorer who co-led the first extensive European expedition of the Mississippi River in 1673. Working with Jesuit priest Jacques Marquette, he mapped major river routes, strengthened French claims in the interior of North America, and later served New France as a hydrographer and regional explorer.
K
Thorfinn Karlsefni (c. 908–c. 1020) — Viking explorer who sailed from Iceland to Leif Erickson’s settlement on Cape Cod around 1010, then explored the Atlantic Coast, possibly as far south as the James River of Virginia. His expedition, which covered about 3,000 miles, is notable because his wife, Gudrid, gave birth to Snorri, the first child of European parents believed to have been born in America. Within a year, they returned to Greenland and later moved to Norway, then permanently to Iceland.
L
Ralph Lane (c. 1532–1603) — Served as the first Governor of Virginia during the 1585–1586 Roanoke venture sponsored by Walter Raleigh. Lane struggled with limited supplies, poor preparation, and strained relations with local Indians. After a failed search for a route to the Pacific, he abandoned the colony and returned to England with Francis Drake, making the Roanoke attempt one of England’s earliest colonial setbacks.
René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle (1643–1687) — A French explorer who claimed the Mississippi River Valley for France in 1682, naming it Louisiana in honor of Louis XIV. Although he failed to establish a permanent colony at the river’s mouth, his expeditions advanced French territorial claims in North America and influenced future colonization efforts.
Bartolomé de Las Casas (c. 1474–1566) — A Spanish Dominican priest and historian who condemned the harsh treatment and enslavement of native peoples in the New World. He challenged the encomienda system, documented Spanish abuses, and influenced the 1542 New Laws of the Indies, which sought to protect indigenous rights.
René de Laudonnière (1529–1582) — A French Huguenot explorer and colonial leader who founded Fort Caroline near the St. Johns River in Florida in 1564. Appointed by Admiral Gaspard de Coligny to lead a Protestant colony, he allied with the Timucua under Chief Saturiba. The settlement was destroyed by Spanish forces under Pedro Menendez de Aviles in 1565. Laudonnière escaped and later described the events in L’Histoire notable de la Floride.
Jean de Léry (1534–1613) — A French Protestant missionary, ethnographer, and writer who traveled to Brazil in 1556 to help establish a Huguenot colony among the Tupinambá. His book Histoire d’un voyage faict en la terre du Bresil (1578) provided one of the earliest and most detailed European accounts of Indigenous American culture, natural history, and the challenges of Atlantic exploration during the Reformation era.
Jacques Le Moyne (c. 1533–1588) — A French artist and colonist who joined René de Laudonnière’s 1565 expedition to Florida to establish a Huguenot base at Fort Caroline. After surviving the Spanish attack led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Le Moyne was rescued in 1567 by Dominique de Gourges. His detailed maps and drawings of the Timucua people provide significant historical and ethnographic insight into 16th-century Indian life in Florida.
Jan Huygen van Linschoten (1563–1611) — A Dutch explorer and writer whose book Itinerario (1596) detailed sea routes to Asia, Africa, and the Americas. His writings expanded European knowledge of global trade and geography, influencing Dutch and English exploration during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. By documenting routes and foreign lands, Linschoten’s work helped inspire the Age of Discovery and the rise of European overseas empires.
M
Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480–1521) — A Portuguese explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe from 1519 to 1522 under the Spanish flag. Although he was killed in the Philippines, his voyage proved that the Earth could be circumnavigated by sea, linking Europe, the Americas, and Asia. The journey revealed the vastness of the Pacific Ocean and expanded European knowledge of global geography and trade routes.
John Mandeville — Likely a pen name used by a 14th-century English writer whose book Mandeville’s Travels described imaginary journeys across Asia and Africa. Though many scholars later labeled him a “travel liar,” his work greatly influenced European ideas about distant lands. Figures such as Leonardo da Vinci, Christopher Columbus, and Martin Frobisher studied or carried his writings, which helped shape European exploration and curiosity, leading to the Age of Exploration.
Peter Martyr of Angleria (1457–1526) — An Italian historian born in 1457, Peter Martyr served at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, where he interviewed Christopher Columbus and other explorers. His 1516 work De Rebus Oceanicis et Nove Orbe decades tres provided Europe with the most detailed early descriptions of the Americas. Through later translations, his writings helped spread knowledge of New World exploration and influenced European understanding of the Atlantic world.
Jacques Marquette (1637–1675) — A French Jesuit missionary and explorer, Jacques Marquette worked to convert Indian tribes in New France and co-led the first significant European exploration of the Mississippi River in 1673 with Louis Jolliet. His detailed journal remains the only original written account of the expedition and contributed to early French territorial claims in North America.
John Mason (1586–1635) — Mason was an English merchant and a principal owner of the Laconia Company who was the driving force behind the early settlement and expansion of the Province of New Hampshire. He funded the colony’s first settlements, such as Pannaway Plantation and Dover, to establish trading posts and fishing operations. He received the Gorges-Mason Grant (1622) and the later “Mason’s Patent” (1629), which named the colony after his home county in England.
Antonio de Mendoza (1490–1552) — The first viceroy of New Spain, appointed in 1535, who organized Spain’s colonial government in the Americas. He strengthened royal authority, reformed taxation and trade, curbed Conquistador abuses, and supported native protections. He commissioned the Codex Mendoza and developed a cautious governing style summarized by his phrase, “I obey, but I will not comply,” which shaped later Spanish colonial administration.
Pedro Menéndez de Avilés (1519–1574) — A Spanish naval commander appointed by Philip II to secure Florida for Spain, he founded St. Augustine in September 1565, defeated the French Huguenots at Fort Caroline, and established the first permanent European settlement in the present-day United States.
Gerhardus Mercator (1512–1594) — A Flemish cartographer whose innovations transformed mapmaking during the 16th century. After surviving religious persecution in Flanders, he settled in Duisburg, where he developed the Mercator Projection, a map projection that preserved accurate shapes for navigation. Mercator also helped develop the first modern atlas, which spread geographic knowledge during the Age of Exploration and supported European voyages that expanded understanding of the Americas.
Nicholas Monardes (1493–1588) — A Spanish physician from Seville who became renowned for his writings on the medicinal uses of plants from the Americas. His book, Joyfull Newes out of the Newe Founde Worlde (1577), introduced European audiences to New World crops such as sassafras and tobacco, which he praised for their healing properties. Though he never traveled to the Americas, his work shaped European views of American natural resources and influenced early modern medicine.
Fynes Moryson (1566–1630) — An English traveler and writer born in 1566 who journeyed across Europe and the Near East between 1591 and 1597. He published An Itinerary… Containing His Ten Years Travell in 1617, which documented his extensive travels and offered insights into European experiences of “discovery” before the Atlantic explorations. His work revealed the curiosity and cultural encounters that shaped early modern European worldviews.
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Pánfilo de Narváez (c. 1470–1528) — A Spanish explorer and Conquistador who helped conquer Cuba and later led a disastrous expedition to Florida in 1528. Sent earlier to arrest Hernán Cortés in Mexico, Narváez was defeated and imprisoned. His Florida expedition suffered from hunger, native resistance, and storms, leaving only four survivors, including Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca. Narváez was lost at sea and presumed dead, symbolizing the dangers of early Spanish exploration in North America.
Christopher Newport (1561–c. 1617) — Newport was an English privateer and adventurer who played a key role in helping establish Jamestown in 1607. After he helped capture a Spanish ship, Madre de Dios, in 1592, the Virginia Company of London hired him to lead the first expedition to Virginia. Newport was one of Queen Elizabeth I’s “Sea Dogs.”
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Alonso de Ojeda (c. 1465–c. 1515) — A Spanish Conquistador who made five transatlantic voyages, first sailing with Christopher Columbus before leading expeditions to northern South America. He explored the Lake Maracaibo region, named it Venezuela, enslaved native peoples, and looted local resources. His actions earned him appointment as adelantado of Coquibacoa, though he died in poverty after repeated failures to establish settlements.
Juan de Oñate (1552–1626) — Spanish explorer and colonizer who led settlers from Chihuahua, Mexico, to establish the first permanent colony in New Mexico in 1598. His rule combined efforts to convert native people to Catholicism with harsh demands and violent suppression, most notably the Acoma Massacre of 1599. Oñate’s actions reflected Spain’s broader imperial ambitions and brutal treatment of Indigenous populations in the Southwest, leading to his removal from office in 1607.
Francisco de Orellana (1511–1546) — De Orellana was a Spanish Conquistador who is known for leading an expedition down the Amazon River in South America. In 1541, Orellana and his crew navigated the entire length of the Amazon River, from the Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean.
Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés (1478–1557) — A Spanish historian and chronicler who documented the early colonization of the Americas in his Historia General y Natural de las Indias Occidentales. His detailed accounts of Indigenous cultures, natural resources, and colonial life provided Europeans with some of the earliest written descriptions of the New World. Oviedo’s work influenced later writers, including Richard Hakluyt, and helped shape European understanding of Spain’s empire in the 16th century.
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Stephen Parmenius (c. 1555–1583) — A Hungarian writer and scholar born around 1555 in Buda who became the first Hungarian to see the Western Hemisphere. Influenced by English promoters of exploration such as Richard Hakluyt and Humphrey Gilbert, he joined Gilbert’s 1583 Newfoundland expedition to write about European exploration of North America. Parmenius died at sea when his ship, the Delight, sank, leaving behind only a few poems that reflected his interest in colonization and discovery.
George Peckham (?–1608) — An English writer and associate of Humphrey Gilbert who promoted the colonization of North America during the late 16th century. A Catholic, Peckham sought to create a refuge for persecuted English Catholics and to profit from trade in Newfoundland and Narragansett Bay. His 1583 publication, A True Reporte, used biblical and economic arguments to justify English claims in the New World and influenced early ideas that led to Jamestown’s founding.
Antonio Pigafetta (c. 1491–c. 1531) — An Italian explorer and chronicler who accompanied Ferdinand Magellan on his voyage around the world. Pigafetta’s account, first published in 1525, offered vivid descriptions of the people and places encountered and preserved crucial information after Magellan’s records were lost, making it the most important surviving source on the expedition.
Alonzo Alvarez de Pineda (1494–1520) — De Pineda was a Spanish explorer and cartographer who mapped the Gulf Coast of North America. In 1519, he sailed along the Gulf Coast from Florida to Mexico, mapping and exploring the area. He is credited with creating one of the earliest European maps of the region.
Francisco Pizarro (c. 1478–1541) — Spanish Conquistador who led the conquest of the Inca Empire in the 1530s. Pizarro captured Emperor Atahualpa at Cajamarca in 1532, accepted a massive ransom of gold and silver, and later executed him. Taking advantage of smallpox outbreaks and the empire’s civil war, Pizarro seized Cuzco and founded Lima as the colonial capital. His actions expanded Spanish rule in South America and exemplified the brutality of European conquest.
Marco Polo (1254–1324) — A Venetian traveler whose 17-year service under Mongol ruler Kublai Khan in Cathay (China) formed the basis of a famous travel account, recorded with Rustichello of Pisa, that shaped European knowledge of Asia, influenced exploration, and remains a somewhat controversial, yet significant, work of geography and travel literature.
Juan Ponce de León (1460–1521) — A Spanish explorer and Conquistador, Ponce de León conquered Puerto Rico and served as its first colonial Governor. He is best known for leading the first recorded European expedition to Florida in 1513, which mistakenly sought the legendary Fountain of Youth. He named the region “Florida” and was later appointed its military Governor. He died in 1521 after being wounded during a conflict with Indigenous peoples on a second expedition.
George Popham (1550–1608) — The nephew of John Popham, he was an English nobleman and the leader of the Plymouth Company’s expedition that established Popham Colony. Popham died in 1608, which contributed to the colony’s failure.
John Popham (c. 1531–1607) — Popham was an English lawyer and judge who was a member of the Plymouth Company. He played a key role in the early English colonization efforts in North America by helping to organize and fund the failed Popham Colony (also known as the Sagadahoc Colony). It was England’s first attempt to establish a colony in New England.
Prester John — A mythical Christian king believed by Europeans from the 12th century onward to rule a wealthy and powerful kingdom in the distant East. Reports first reached Europe in 1145, describing him as a descendant of the Magi and a possible ally in the Crusades. His legend inspired centuries of exploration, as Europeans sought his supposed kingdom in Asia, the Middle East, and eventually Ethiopia, reflecting medieval hopes for Christian unity and expansion.
Samuel Purchas (1577–1626) — An English minister and editor who compiled and published travel narratives that promoted exploration and English colonization. His works, including Purchas his Pilgrimage (1613) and Hakluytus Posthumus, or Purchas his Pilgrimes (1625), preserved firsthand accounts from explorers such as Henry Hudson. Although less famous than Richard Hakluyt the Younger, Purchas’s work expanded English knowledge of geography, religion, and global exploration during the early 17th Century.
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Walter Raleigh (c. 1554–1618) — Raleigh was an English explorer, soldier, and courtier who played a significant role in early English colonization efforts in North America during the Elizabethan Era. A favorite of Queen Elizabeth I and one of her “Sea Dogs,” Raleigh received a patent to explore and claim lands for the English Crown. He financed and promoted the Roanoke Colony (1585–1587), the first English attempt at permanent settlement, though it ultimately failed. His efforts helped pave the way for later colonial ventures such as Jamestown. Raleigh fell out of favor under King James I, was imprisoned for treason, and executed in 1618.
Giovanni Battista Ramusio (1485–1557) — Ramusio was a Venetian civil servant, scholar, and editor best known for compiling and publishing the three-volume Navigationi e Viaggi, one of the most significant travel collections of the Renaissance. Fluent in several languages, he translated and assembled firsthand accounts from explorers across the world, improving European geographic knowledge. His decision to publish in Italian broadened access to his work, influencing later editors like Richard Hakluyt and Samuel Purchas while avoiding overt political agendas.
Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) — A Jesuit missionary who led the first successful mission to Ming China, arriving in 1582 and remaining there for 28 years. Ricci gained influence through his mastery of the Chinese language, scholarship, and diplomacy rather than military force. He introduced Western science and philosophy to Chinese scholars and officials, earning the respect of the imperial court. His writings fostered cultural exchange between China and Europe, making him a central figure in early global exploration and cross-cultural understanding.
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Bernardino de Sahagún (c. 1499–1590) — A Spanish Franciscan friar who arrived in New Spain in 1529 and documented Aztec culture, religion, and society through interviews with Indigenous informants. His major work, the Florentine Codex, completed over 30 years, recorded Aztec beliefs and the Spanish conquest in both Spanish and Nahuatl. Though some details are debated, it remains a vital source for understanding pre-Columbian Mexico and the impact of Spanish colonization.
Gonzalo de Sandoval (1497–1528) — A Spanish soldier and Conquistador who served as one of Hernán Cortés’s most trusted officers during and after the conquest of the Aztecs. Between 1521 and 1527, he led expeditions across Mexico, subdued native regions, and founded towns such as Espiritu Santo and Colima. Known for his loyalty and military skill, Sandoval helped consolidate Spanish control before dying of fever in 1528 while returning to Spain with Cortés.
Edwin Sandys (1561–1629) — An English parliamentarian and treasurer of the Virginia Company from 1619 to 1624, Sandys led major reforms that revived the struggling Virginia colony. He expanded private plantations, increased migration, and promoted economic stability through tobacco cultivation. Though he never visited Virginia, his policies helped establish the colony’s long-term success and influenced the development of English colonial governance and plantation economies in North America.
Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda (1490–1573) — A 16th-century Spanish humanist and scholar who argued that native peoples of the Americas were naturally inferior to Europeans. Drawing on Aristotle’s ideas, Sepúlveda justified the Spanish conquest as a means to civilize and convert the natives. His 1550 debate with Bartolomé de Las Casas at Valladolid became a landmark discussion over colonial morality, native rights, and the ethics of imperial expansion.
Diogo Lopes de Sequeira (1465–1520) — Portuguese explorer and commander who led early 16th-century voyages to India, Sumatra, and Malacca. His expeditions helped Portugal expand its influence in the Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands, securing valuable trade routes. His efforts to control Asian commerce inspired later European debates about maritime law, leading Hugo Grotius to write Mare liberum (“The Free Sea”) and influencing English expansion through Richard Hakluyt’s translation.
Junípero Serra (1713–1784) — A Spanish Franciscan missionary who founded more than 20 missions in California during the late 1700s as part of Spain’s effort to convert native peoples and expand territorial claims. Appointed after the Jesuits’ expulsion in 1767, Serra oversaw the religious side of colonization while using harsh methods to control native communities. His missions became central to California’s economy and settlement, though they also caused cultural disruption and deadly epidemics among native populations.
Dionyse Settle (?–?) — English explorer and writer who sailed with Martin Frobisher on his 1577 expedition in search of the Northwest Passage. Settle wrote A True Reporte of the Laste Voyage into the West and Northwest & c., which described encounters with the Inuit and reflected English views of native peoples as both curious and inferior. His account, later reprinted by Richard Hakluyt, became part of the growing European interest in New World exploration narratives.
John Smith (c. 1580–1631) — Smith was an English soldier, explorer, and historian. He is best known for his role in helping stabilize Jamestown, the first permanent English colony in America, and for his legendary encounter with the Powhatan princess, Pocahontas.
Hernando de Soto (1500–1542) — A Spanish Conquistador who explored the southeastern United States between 1539 and 1542 in search of gold and wealth. Known for his cruelty toward native peoples, he led an expedition that caused violence and spread diseases such as smallpox. De Soto died near the Mississippi River in 1542, and his men secretly buried him. Historians now view him as an agent of the Columbian Exchange who contributed to the decline of Indigenous populations.
Peter Stuyvesant (c. 1610–1672) — Stuyvesant was the last Dutch director-general of New Netherland, serving from 1647 until the English captured the colony in 1664 and renamed it New York. Known for his authoritarian leadership and loyalty to the Dutch Reformed Church, he implemented reforms and enforced strict regulations. His refusal to grant political or religious freedoms led to conflict with colonists. After the peaceful surrender, he remained in New York under English rule until his death.
Hans Staden (c. 1525–c.1576) — A German traveler and writer who journeyed to Brazil in the mid-1500s, where he was captured by the Tupinambá people and later rescued. His 1557 publication Warhafftiger Historia provided one of the earliest ethnographic accounts of Indigenous South Americans. Combining religious reflection with vivid descriptions of Tupinambá customs and cannibalism, the work influenced European views of the Americas and shaped later depictions by artists such as Theodor de Bry.
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André Thevet (c. 1516–1590) — A 16th-century French scholar, explorer, and royal cosmographer who wrote influential travel accounts about the Americas, including Les Singularitez de la France antarctique (1557) and La Cosmographie Universelle (1575). His works introduced European readers to Indigenous cultures, geography, and language, reflecting early French interest in the New World. Though later criticized for errors, Thevet’s writings contributed to Europe’s growing understanding of the Western Hemisphere during the Age of Exploration.
David Thomson (c. 1588–c. 1628) — Scotsman who led a group of settlers for the Laconia Company to New Hampshire in 1623, establishing the first English settlement, Pannaway Plantation at Odiorne’s Point. He received his own grant of 6,000 acres from the Council for New England and later moved to an island in Boston Harbor (now Thompson Island) in 1626.
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Francisco de Ulloa (?–1540) — De Ulloa was a Spanish explorer who sailed along the western coast of present-day Mexico and the Gulf of California in the early 16th century. In 1539, Ulloa embarked on an expedition to explore and map the Gulf of California, becoming the first known European to do so.
Erik Upsi (?–?) — Upsi was a Norse bishop who sailed to Vinland in the late 12th Century. No record exists of what happened to his expedition. He is also known as Erik Gnuppsen and Henricus. Some consider him to be the first bishop to reside in the Americas.
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Pedro de Valdivia (1497–1553) — A Spanish conqueror who led the expedition that conquered Chile beginning in 1540. A former officer under Francisco Pizarro, Valdivia founded several major Chilean cities, including Santiago in 1541, Concepción in 1550, and Valdivia in 1552. Known for his disciplined leadership, he became Chile’s Governor in 1547. His mistreatment of native peoples led to his death in 1554 during an ambush led by his former servant, Lautaro, amid continued Araucanian resistance.
Diego de Velázquez (1599–1660) — Spanish Conquistador and Governor of Cuba who played a major role in early Caribbean exploration after 1500. He sponsored expeditions led by Hernán Cortés, Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, and Juan de Grijalva in hopes of expanding Spanish control and his own wealth. His conflict with Cortés over authority in Mexico marked a key power struggle during Spain’s early conquests in the Americas. Velázquez died in 1524 as one of the wealthiest men in the New World.
Giovanni da Verrazano (c. 1485–c. 1528) — Verrazano was an Italian explorer commissioned in 1524 by King Francis I to lead France’s first official voyage to North America. He mapped the Atlantic coast from the Carolinas to Newfoundland, recorded observations of native peoples, and sought a westward passage to Asia. Although he was killed during a later expedition in 1528, his reports provided valuable geographic and ethnographic information.
Amerigo Vespucci (1451–1512) — Italian explorer, cosmographer, and banker whose voyages from Spain and Portugal to South America between 1499 and 1501 helped confirm that the lands discovered by Europeans were part of a “New World” rather than Asia. His published reports inspired cartographer Martin Waldseemüller to name the continents “America” in his honor, a term that, by the 1530s, came to refer to the entire Western Hemisphere.
Ángel de Villafañe (c. 1504–?) — De Villafañe was a Spanish naval officer and explorer of the 16th century, who undertook numerous expeditions that contributed to Spain’s colonization efforts and the establishment of its empire in the Americas. His voyages encompassed the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, where he explored uncharted territories, charted new routes, and expanded Spanish knowledge of the New World.
Francisco de Vitoria (c. 1483–1546) — A Spanish jurist and theologian who lived from about 1485 to 1546, Francisco de Vitoria challenged the moral and legal basis of Spanish conquest in the Americas. In his 1539 treatise On the American Indians, he argued that native peoples were rational human beings with legitimate rights to their lands and self-government. His ideas influenced later debates on colonialism and helped inspire the New Laws of 1542, which sought to protect Indigenous rights under Spanish rule.
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Martin Waldseemüller (1470–1520) — A German cartographer born around 1470 who created the Universalis cosmographia (1507), the first map to label the New World as “America” in honor of explorer Amerigo Vespucci. Waldseemüller’s map, based on Portuguese and Italian sources, depicted the Americas as distinct from Asia and influenced later European cartography, including Gerhardus Mercator’s 1538 map that extended the name “America” to North America.
Francis Walsingham (c. 1532–1590) — An English statesman and diplomat who served as Queen Elizabeth I’s secretary of state from 1573 to 1590. Known as the founder of England’s secret service, he organized an intelligence network to uncover Catholic plots against the queen. Walsingham supported maritime exploration and colonial expansion, working with figures like Humphrey Gilbert and Richard Hakluyt. His career reflected the growing use of espionage and diplomacy in strengthening England during the late 16th century.
John White (c. 1539–c. 1593) — English artist and Governor of the 1587 Roanoke Colony, known for his watercolor depictions of the Carolina Algonquian and early North American landscapes. White led the “Cittie of Raleigh in Virginia” and appointed Manteo to aid relations with local Indians. After returning to England for supplies, the Spanish Armada delayed his return to Roanoke, and the colony disappeared. His art and the mystery of the “Lost Colony” became significant in early American colonial history.
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Juan de Zumárraga (468–1548) — The first bishop and later archbishop of New Spain, de Zumárraga helped shape the early Catholic Church in Spanish America. Appointed by Charles V in 1527, he worked to protect native peoples from abuse under the encomienda system and promoted education, health care, and charity. He co-founded schools, the College of Santiago in Tlatelolco, and New Spain’s first university, while also introducing the first printing press to Mexico.
Timeline
892 — Erik the Red explored Greenland.
895 — Erik the Red returned to Greenland with colonists.
late 9th–early 10th century — Saint Brendan the Navigator’s legendary westward voyage was recorded in the Navigatio.
c. 1010 — Viking explorer Thorfinn Karlsefni sailed from Iceland to Leif Erikson’s settlement on Cape Cod, and his wife, Gudrid, gave birth to Snorri, the first child of European parents believed to have been born in America.
1145 — Reports of the mythical Christian King, Prester John, first reached Europe.
1455 — Alvise de Cadamosto began leading expeditions for Prince Henry the Navigator.
1488 — Bartholomeu Dias became the first European to round the Cape of Good Hope.
1492 — Martin Behaim created the oldest surviving globe.
1492 — Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile sponsored Columbus’s voyage, initiating Spain’s overseas empire.
1497 — John Cabot reached Newfoundland, officially discovering North America for Europe.
1498 — Vasco da Gama discovered a sea route to India.
1500 — Pedro Álvares Cabral accidentally landed in Brazil and claimed it for Portugal.
1513 — Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean.
1513 — Juan Ponce de León led the first recorded European expedition to Florida.
1516 — Peter Martyr of Angleria’s work De Rebus Oceanicis et Nove Orbe decades tres provided Europe with the most detailed early descriptions of the Americas.
1517 — Vasco Núñez de Balboa was executed after being accused of treason by Governor Pedrarias Dávila.
1517 — Francisco Hernández de Córdoba explored the Yucatán Peninsula, encountering the Maya and suffering heavy losses.
1518 — Juan de Grijalva led an expedition from Cuba to the Yucatán and Veracruz, where he first heard reports of the Aztec Empire.
1519 — Hernán Cortés began the expedition that brought down the Aztec Empire.
1519 — Juan de Escalante, as commander of Veracruz, led an entrada northward but was defeated by Aztec soldiers and killed.
1519 — Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe, which lasted until 1522.
1521 — Hernán Cortés seized Tenochtitlán, bringing down the Aztec Empire.
1527 — Pánfilo de Narváez led a disastrous expedition to Florida, which ultimately resulted in only four survivors.
1529 — Francisco de Aguilar gave up his property and became a Dominican priest.
1529 — Bernardino de Sahagún arrived in New Spain.
1532 — Francisco Pizarro captured Emperor Atahualpa at Cajamarca.
1532 — King John III of Portugal promoted colonization in Brazil, founding São Vicente and São Paulo.
1534 — Jacques Cartier began the first of three voyages to North America, which ended in 1541.
1535 — Antonio de Mendoza was appointed the first viceroy of New Spain.
1536 — Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca returned to Spain after surviving a shipwreck, enslavement, and travel across present-day Texas and northern Mexico.
1539 — Hernando de Soto led a major expedition through the southeastern United States, which lasted until 1542.
1540 — Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led an expedition in search of the fabled cities of Cíbola and Quivira, which lasted until 1542.
1542 — Bartolomé de Las Casas influenced the New Laws of the Indies, which sought to protect the rights of indigenous peoples.
1550 — Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda debated Bartolomé de Las Casas at Valladolid over colonial morality.
1564 — René de Laudonnière founded Fort Caroline near the St. Johns River in Florida.
1565 — Pedro Menéndez de Avilés founded St. Augustine, the first permanent European settlement in the present-day United States, and defeated the French Huguenots at Fort Caroline.
1577 — Francis Drake began his circumnavigation of the globe, which ended in 1580.
1583 — Stephen Parmenius died at sea when his ship, the Delight, sank during Humphrey Gilbert’s Newfoundland expedition.
1585 — Walter Raleigh financed and promoted the Roanoke colony, the first English attempt at permanent settlement, which failed by 1587.
1588 — Thomas Harriot produced A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia.
1590 — José de Acosta wrote Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias.
1592 — John Davis discovered the Falkland Islands.
1596 — Jan Huygen van Linschoten’s book Itinerario was published.
1598 — Juan de Oñate led settlers to establish the first permanent colony in New Mexico.
1601 — The narrative Shipwreck Suffered by Jorge D’Albuquerque Coelho was inspired by Coelho’s experience.
1602 — Bartholomew Gosnold led an expedition to explore the New England coast, discovering and naming Cape Cod and Martha’s Vineyard.
1608 — Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec.
1611 — Henry Hudson was abandoned by his crew after a mutiny during his final voyage.
1617 — Fynes Moryson published An Itinerary… Containing His Ten Years Travell, documenting his extensive travels across Europe and the Near East.
1629 — John Mason received “Mason’s Patent,” which named his colony “New Hampshire,” after his home county in England.
1673 — Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette co-led the first extensive European expedition of the Mississippi River.
1682 — René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, claimed the Mississippi River Valley for France, naming it Louisiana.
late 1700s — Fray Junípero Serra founded more than 20 missions in California.
AP US History
European Explorers are part of the following units, topics, and chapters in the AP US History Curriculum:
