APUSH Chapter 15, Ferment of Reform and Culture

The Ferment of Reform and Culture discusses the social movements that grew out of the Second Great Awakening. The main movements focused on temperance, women’s rights, education, and abolition.

Social and Religious Reform in Early 19th Century America

From 1790 to 1860, America saw a surge of social and religious reform that grew out of the Second Great Awakening. The leaders of these movements sought to transform the nation’s culture by improving education, morality, and inclusion.

As the nation expanded westward, church attendance dropped, and there was an increase in social problems, including alcoholism. The Temperance Movement grew from these concerns, and Neal S. Dow rose to prominence as the “Father of Prohibition.”

Publicly funded education was limited, and many Americans struggled to learn how to read and write. By the 1850s, the upper classes of American society saw value in education reform, leading to tax-supported public schools and the establishment of small liberal arts colleges. Leaders of education reform included Horace Mann, Daniel Webster, and William H. McGuffey.

The Second Great Awakening resulted in Americans returning to church but also led to divisions in existing religious communities and the formation of new ones. Western New York’s “Burned Over Districts” led to the rise of the Seventh Day Adventists and Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons).

Mormon theology and practices were significantly different than traditional religions, which led to harassment. They were slowly driven out of New York, across Ohio, and into Illinois. After their leader, Joseph Smith was murdered, Brigham Young assumed leadership and led the Mormons to Utah, where they established a new society. After the Utah Territory was organized, they came into conflict with the United States government, leading to the Mountain Meadows Massacre and the Utah War.

Changes for women’s education, Women’s Rights, and Woman Suffrage came to the forefront with the establishment of the Troy Female Seminary (1821) and the Seneca Falls Convention (1848). Important women rose to prominence during this time, including Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony. However, they were joined by Sojourner Truth, a prominent black woman who escaped slavery and advocated for all women.

Advances were made in the arts (painting, literature, history), sciences, and prison reform. All of this led to the development of a uniquely American identity that started to gain worldwide recognition. While all this was happening, a larger movement was formulating, one that would ultimately lead the nation into the Civil War — the Abolition Movement.

Reviving Religion After the Era of Good Feelings

Shifts in Religious Beliefs in 19th-Century America

In 1850, about 75% of the 23 million Americans regularly attended church.
Alexis de Tocqueville noted that Christianity had a strong influence in America.
The religious practices of the time differed from the strict Calvinism of colonial days.
The rationalist ideas from the French Revolution softened traditional religious orthodoxy.
Thomas Paine’s The Age of Reason (1794) criticized churches, claiming they were created to control and profit from people.
Many Founding Fathers, including Jefferson and Franklin, embraced Deism, a belief system that emphasized reason and science.
Deists rejected some key concepts of Christianity but believed in a Supreme Being..

AHC Note — Alexis de Tocqueville was a French aristocrat who toured the United States for 10 months in 1831 and 1832, studying the American prison system. Tocqueville published, “Democracy in America,” which highlighted the freedom and individualism he observed. It is considered to be one of the most important books of the 19th Century. Regarding religion in America, Tocqueville said there was, “no country in the world where the Christian religion retains a greater influence over the souls of men than in America.”

The Rise of Unitarianism in New England

Deism influenced the emergence of the Unitarian faith, an offshoot of strict Puritanism.
Unitarianism gained momentum in New England at the end of the 18th Century.
Unitarians believed in God as one person, rejecting the traditional Christian Trinity.
They denied the deity of Jesus and emphasized the inherent goodness of human nature.
Unitarians believed in free will and the possibility of salvation through good works.
God was viewed as a loving Father rather than a stern Creator.
The movement attracted many intellectuals, including Ralph Waldo Emerson.
Unitarianism’s rationalism and optimism contrasted with the harsh doctrines of Calvinism, such as predestination and human depravity.

AHC Note — In Calvinism, predestination is the theory that God had pre-selected who is going to Heaven. These “predestined” people are known as the “Elect.” In Puritanism, the Elect were revealed through the process of “Conversion,” which included a personal revelation from God, and then describing the experience to the congregation.

The Second Great Awakening and Its Impact

Around 1800, there was a reaction against growing religious liberalism.
The Second Great Awakening started with revivals on the southern frontier and spread to the Northeast.
This revival was more widespread than the First Great Awakening a century before.
The Second Great Awakening was a significant event in American religious history.
The movement converted many people, reorganized churches, and led to the creation of new religious groups.
It also promoted evangelicalism, which influenced various social causes, including prison reform, temperance, women’s rights, and the abolition of slavery.

The Spread of the Second Great Awakening Through Camp Meetings

The Second Great Awakening reached frontier communities through large “camp meetings.”
Up to 25,000 people would gather for several days to hear sermons from traveling preachers.
Many attendees, seeking spiritual fulfillment, “got religion” during the meetings.
The emotional experiences often included frenzied behaviors like rolling, dancing, barking, and jerking.
Although some of the newly converted reverted to their previous ways, these revivals increased church membership.
The movement also inspired various humanitarian reforms.
Easterners were motivated to engage in missionary work in the West, with Native Americans, in Hawaii, and in Asia.

Methodists and Baptists in the Revival Movement

Methodists and Baptists gained the most followers during the Second Great Awakening.
Both denominations emphasized personal conversion, opposing the idea of predestination.
They promoted a democratic approach to church governance.
Their services were marked by strong emotional expression.
A popular frontier jingle reflected their lively worship style: “The devil hates the Methodist because they sing and shout the best.”

Peter Cartwright

Peter Cartwright (1785–1872) was a prominent Methodist “circuit rider” or traveling preacher.
He served as a preacher across the frontier for 50 years, from Tennessee to Illinois.
Despite being poorly educated, he was known for his powerful presence and preaching style.
Cartwright converted thousands with his booming voice and energetic gestures.
He was not only verbally fierce against the Devil but also physically defended his meetings, often using his fists to deal with troublemakers.
His approach to Christianity was described as “muscular.”

Charles Grandison Finney

Charles Grandison Finney was the most influential of the revival preachers.
Trained as a lawyer, Finney became an evangelist after a profound conversion experience.
He captivated large audiences with his powerful speaking and compelling message.
He led major revivals in Rochester and New York City in 1830 and 1831.
Although he preached traditional religion, Finney introduced new practices, such as the “anxious bench” for repentant sinners to be publicly visible.
He encouraged women to pray aloud during services.
Finney sought a perfect Christian society and strongly opposed alcohol and slavery.
He became president of Oberlin College in Ohio, turning it into a center for revivalism and abolitionism.

The Feminization of Religion During the Second Great Awakening

The Second Great Awakening saw a significant increase in the involvement of women in religion.
Middle-class women, particularly the wives and daughters of businessmen, were enthusiastic participants in revivals.
Women became the majority of new church members and were more likely than men to remain committed after meetings ended.
Women’s concerns about the rapid changes in the Market Economy may have driven their eagerness for religious devotion.
Evangelicals emphasized the spiritual importance of women and encouraged them to play an active role in guiding their families back to God.
Many women extended their efforts to broader society, forming charitable organizations and leading various reform movements of the era.

Denominational Diversity

Religious Fragmentation and the “Burned-Over District”

Revivals contributed to the diversification of religious beliefs and division in congregations.
Western New York, heavily populated by descendants of New England Puritans, became a center of intense religious activity.
The region earned the nickname “Burned-Over District” due to the prevalence of fiery sermons focused on “hellfire and damnation.”

AHC Note — Charles Grandison Finney explained the Burned-Over District this way, “I found that region of country what, in the western phrase, would be called, a ‘burnt district.’ There had been, a few years previously, a wild excitement passing through that region, which they called a revival of religion, but which turned out to be spurious.” By this, he meant the region was ‘burned’ by false religion, prior to his arrival.

The Millerites and the Adventist Movement

The Millerites, also known as Adventists, emerged from the Burned-Over District.
The movement, which gained several hundred thousand followers, was led by William Miller, an eloquent and influential preacher.
Millerites believed the Bible predicted Christ’s return on October 22, 1844.
Followers dressed in their best clothes and gathered in anticipation of the arrival.
Although it did not happen, the movement continued as the Seventh Day Adventists.
One well-known offshoot of the Adventists is the Jehovah’s Witnesses.

Class and Regional Divisions from the Second Great Awakening

The Second Great Awakening deepened divisions between social classes and regions.
Wealthier, more conservative denominations in the East, such as Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and Unitarians, were largely unaffected by the revival movement.
These denominations continued to attract members from the more prosperous and better-educated segments of society.
In contrast, Methodists, Baptists, and other new groups born from the movement primarily drew followers from less affluent and less educated communities in the rural South and West.

AHC Note — In reality, rapid westward expansion outpaced the pace of establishing new congregations and churches on the frontier. This led to a decline in traditional American Protestantism and church attendance.

Religious Division Over Slavery and Its Impact

Religious diversity mirrored social divisions as churches confronted the issue of slavery.
By 1844–1845, southern Baptists and Methodists had separated from their northern counterparts over slavery.
The Methodist split was triggered by a controversy involving a slave-owning bishop, James Osgood Andrew, in Georgia, whose second wife brought additional slaves into his household.
In 1857, Presbyterians in the North and South also divided over slavery.
The separation of southern churches foreshadowed the eventual secession of southern states.
The sequence of divisions started in the churches, was followed by the political parties, and ultimately led to the splitting of the Union.

AHC Note — James Osgood Andrew was a circuit preacher who worked circuits in South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia. In 1836, he moved to Newton County, Georgia to be closer to the Methodis Manual Labor School (present-day Emory University), where he was a trustee. Although there is some question over whether Andrew bought and sold slaves, his first wife and second wife were both slave owners. In 1844, the Methodist General Conference asked him to “desist” from serving as an officer in the church. When the southern faction of the Conference opposed the measure, a Plan of Separation was introduced and approved. The Methodist Episcopal Church, South, held its first meeting in 1846 and invited Andrew to serve as president.

A Desert Zion in Utah

The Founding of the Mormon Church

In 1830, another new movement emerged from the Burned-Over District in upstate New York.
Joseph Smith claimed to have received golden plates from an angel.
These plates, once deciphered, became the Book of Mormon.
He established the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, or Mormons.
The Mormon faith was a uniquely American creation, destined to grow and spread its influence globally.

AHC Note — Smith declared to have uncovered the history of the Lamanites, one of four ancient Israeli tribes that migrated to the New World, who were the ancestors of Native American Indians.

Opposition to Joseph Smith and the Early Mormons

Smith established a religious oligarchy, which faced strong opposition from non-Mormon neighbors.
The opposition started in Ohio and later spread to Missouri and Illinois.
The Mormon lifestyle clashed with the values of many Americans.
Further antagonism arose due to the Mormons voting as a unified group and organizing a militia for defense.
Accusations of polygamy intensified the hostility.

AHC Note — An oligarchy is defined as a small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution.

AHC Note — The Mormons were controversial due to their religious beliefs and practices. Like the Pilgrims more than 200 years earlier, the Mormons referred to themselves as “Saints,” and called non-Mormons “Gentiles.”

Brigham Young Leads the Mormons to Utah

Persistent hostility against the Mormons led to desperate actions.
In 1844, Joseph Smith and his brother were killed by a mob in Carthage, Illinois.
Brigham Young took over the leadership.
Young, who had only 11 days of formal schooling, quickly became an effective leader, preacher, and administrator.
Young led the Mormons to Utah in 1846–1847.

AHC Note — Young organized the “Great Western Measure,” a plan to move the Mormons west, out of the United States, where they could live in peace. By 1847, the Mormons were settling in Mexican territory, in areas that are now Utah and Nevada. On July 24, 1847, they established Great Salt Lake City, the first major settlement on the Oregon-California Trail.

The Mormons Thrive in Utah

The Mormons overcame many hardships in their new settlement.
They transformed the desert into fertile land through innovative and cooperative irrigation techniques.
In 1848, their crops were threatened by a massive swarm of crickets.
Flocks of gulls appeared, seemingly miraculously, to devour the crickets and save the crops.
A monument to the seagulls, commemorating this event, still stands in Salt Lake City.

Rapid Growth of the Mormon Community in Utah

Semi-arid Utah saw significant growth after the Mormons settled there.
By the end of 1848, approximately 5,000 settlers had arrived in Utah.
More large groups of settlers followed in subsequent years.
In the 1850s, many devoted Mormons undertook the 1,300-mile journey across the plains, some pulling two-wheeled carts.

The Mormon Community’s Growth and Governance Under Brigham Young

Brigham Young’s leadership transformed the Mormon community into a prosperous frontier theocracy and cooperative commonwealth.
Young married up to 27 women, although some were wives in name only, and fathered 56 children.
The population expanded significantly due to thousands of European immigrants, attracted by a successful Mormon missionary movement abroad.

AHC Note — A theocracy is defined as a system of government in which priests rule in the name of God or a god.

Conflict Between the Mormons and the U.S. Government

A crisis emerged after the U.S. government appointed Brigham Young as the territorial governor in 1850.
Young was accused of defying government orders.
In 1857, a U.S. Army expedition was sent to confront the Mormons, who resisted by disrupting the army’s supply lines and preparing for a last stand.
The conflict was eventually resolved without significant bloodshed.
The Mormons later faced legal challenges due to antipolygamy laws passed by Congress in 1862 and 1882.
The practice of polygamy delayed Utah’s statehood until 1896.

AHC Note — The conflict between the Federal Government and the Mormons is known as the “Utah War.” It started with a terrible incident known as the “Mountain Meadows Massacre.” It was a brutal attack on a wagon train by Mormon militiamen and Paiute Indians in 1857. The attack took place during the Utah War and was fueled by tensions between Mormons and emigrants traveling through Utah to California. It is known as one of the most violent incidents during Westward Expansion.

Mountain Meadows Massacre, 1857, Illustration — This illustration depicts the Mountain Meadows Massacre. Image Source: *Wild Life on the Plains and Horrors of Indian Warfare* by George Armstrong Custer, 1891.

Free Schools for Free People

Early Resistance to Tax-Supported Public Schools

In the early years of the Republic, tax-supported schools were rare.
Schools were often called “pauper schools,” because they served the poor.
Public education advocates faced strong opposition from many areas of society.
One midwestern legislator famously declared his desire for an epitaph reading: “Here lies an enemy of public education.”

AHC Note — AHC has been unable to verify who said, “Here lies an enemy of public education.”

Shift in Attitudes Toward Public Education

Over time, wealthy, conservative Americans recognized the value of public education.
They feared that if they didn’t fund education for “other folkses’ brats,” those children might grow up uneducated and become a dangerous, ignorant mob with the power to vote.
Supporting taxation for education was seen as an insurance premium for maintaining social stability and democracy.

The Triumph of Public Education Between 1825 and 1850

Tax-supported public education became widely established between 1825 and 1850, though it struggled in the South due to slavery.
As laborers gained more influence, they demanded education for their children.
The expansion of suffrage (voting) for white men during the Age of Jackson increased the demand for public education.
The concept of a “free vote” led to the call for “free education.”
Thomas Jefferson stated that a civilized nation could not be both ignorant and free.

The Early American Schoolhouse and Its Challenges

The “little red schoolhouse” with one room, one stove, one teacher, and often eight grades became a symbol of American Democracy.
The early free schools were far from perfect, often staying open for only a few months each year.
Schoolteachers, predominantly men, were often undertrained, underpaid, and sometimes ill-tempered.
Discipline and order were often emphasized over learning.
Teachers often “boarded around” in the community and sometimes knew only slightly more than their older students.
The curriculum typically focused on the “Three Rs” — “readin’, ’ritin’, and ’rithmetic.”
Americans who were wary of learning considered this basic education sufficient.

Horace Mann and the Push for Education Reform

The call for education reform started in the early 19th Century.
Horace Mann (1796–1859), a Brown University graduate, was a key figure in the movement
As secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, Mann campaigned for better schoolhouses, longer school terms, higher teacher pay, and a broader curriculum.
His efforts influenced other states, leading to significant improvements in education.
Despite these advances, education remained a costly luxury for many communities.
By 1860, the U.S. had only about 100 public secondary schools and nearly 1 million white adult illiterates.
Black slaves in the South were legally prohibited from learning to read or write, and free blacks were often excluded from schools in both the North and South.

Noah Webster and the Improvement of Educational Textbooks

Improved textbooks supported the educational progress.
Noah Webster (1758–1843), a Yale-educated Connecticut native, was known as the “Schoolmaster of the Republic.”
His “reading lessons” were used by millions of children in the 19th century and were partly intended to foster patriotism.
Webster spent 20 years creating his famous dictionary, published in 1828, which played a significant role in standardizing the American language.

William H. McGuffey and His Impact on Education

William H. McGuffey (1800–1873) was a teacher and preacher from Ohio.
McGuffey’s grade-school readers, first published in the 1830s, became incredibly popular, selling 122 million copies over the subsequent decades.
McGuffey’s Readers instilled enduring lessons in morality, patriotism, and idealism in generations of American students.

Higher Goals for Higher Learning

The Growth of Higher Education During the Second Great Awakening

The Second Great Awakening sparked the establishment of many small, denominational liberal arts colleges, primarily in the South and West.
These colleges were often academically weak, founded more for local pride than to significantly advance learning.
The curriculum at new and established colleges was narrow and tradition-bound, focusing on Latin, Greek, mathematics, and moral philosophy.
There was little intellectual excitement on these campuses, with much of the education characterized by boredom.

AHC Note — The academic strength and “intellectual excitement” at these smaller liberal arts colleges is debatable. Many of these schools still exist, and have served as a valuable alternative to larger, urban colleges.

Early State-Supported Universities

State-supported universities emerged in the South, starting with North Carolina in 1795.
Federal land grants supported the growth of state institutions of higher learning.
The University of Virginia, founded in 1819, was a notable example of the early universities.
Thomas Jefferson, the school’s primary visionary, designed its architecture and often observed its construction from his nearby hilltop home.
Jefferson dedicated the university to freedom from religious and political influence.
The University of Virginia placed unusual emphasis on modern languages and the sciences.

Early Attitudes Toward Women’s Higher Education

In the early 19th Century, higher education for women was discouraged.
Society believed a “woman’s place was in the home,” with skills like needlecraft considered more important than academic subjects like algebra.
The ideal woman of the time was seen as a dependent, supportive bride, making coeducation seem unnecessary or even frivolous.
Prejudices suggested that excessive learning could harm a woman’s brain, damage her health, and make her unsuitable for marriage.
Susan B. Anthony, a future feminist leader, faced these biases when her teachers refused to teach her long division.

The Rise of Secondary Education for Women

Women’s secondary schools started to gain respectability in the 1820s, due to the efforts of Emma Willard (1787–1870).
In 1821, Emma Willard founded the Troy Female Seminary in New York.
Oberlin College in Ohio broke with tradition in 1837 by admitting women alongside men, having already shocked many by accepting Black students.
Also in 1837, Mary Lyon founded Mount Holyoke Seminary (later College) in South Hadley, Massachusetts, an exceptional school for women.
Traditionalists mocked these advancements.

Expanding Access to Adult Education in the 19th Century

Adults seeking further education turned to private subscription libraries and tax-supported libraries.
House-to-house peddlers played a significant role in satisfying the public’s growing appetite for culture.
Traveling lecturers brought education to the masses through lyceum lecture associations, which grew to about 3,000 by 1835.
Lyceums offered platforms for speakers in areas such as science, literature, and moral philosophy.
Renowned speakers like Ralph Waldo Emerson traveled extensively on lyceum circuits, delivering lectures to eager audiences across the country.

AHC Note — Lyceums are public halls used for lectures.

The Rise and Fall of Pre–Civil War Magazines

Magazines became popular in the years leading up to the Civil War, though many had short lifespans.
The North American Review, established in 1815, was a prominent and long-lasting magazine for intellectuals.
Godey’s Lady’s Book, founded in 1830, became a cultural staple, surviving until 1898.
At its height, Godey’s Lady’s Book had a circulation of 150,000, a large number for that era.
The magazine was widely read by millions of women, often passed around among relatives and friends until the copies were well-worn.

An Age of Reform

Women in Reform Movements

Reform movements were often led by eccentric individuals and inspired idealists.
Many of them were driven by the evangelical fervor of the Second Great Awakening.
They sought to create a perfected society, free from cruelty, war, alcohol, discrimination, and slavery.
Women played a prominent role in these movements, including the quest for women’s suffrage.
For many women, involvement offered a chance to step outside the home and participate in aspects of public life they were not accustomed to

Reformers Respond to a Changing Economy

Reformers were partly driven by a desire to reaffirm traditional values amid the disruptions caused by the expanding Market Economy.
They were often middle-class descendants of pioneer farmers, unaware that they were witnessing the beginning of the industrial era.
The challenges posed by industrialization required new ideas, but reformers often ignored or misunderstood the needs of factory workers.
Reformers attributed the problems workers faced to personal failings or bad habits.
With a naive focus on restoring traditional values, they attempted to revive an older social order, even as they were being propelled into a new, industrialized world.

The Gradual Abolition of Debtors’ Prisons

Imprisonment for debt continued, though its prevalence has been overstated.
As late as 1830, hundreds of impoverished individuals were imprisoned, sometimes for owing less than $1.
As laborers gained political power and secured the right to vote, state legislatures gradually abolished the prisons.

AHC Note — While it can be suggested that debtor’s prisons disproportionately affected the poor, it stands to reason the poor would be less able to pay their debts. Therefore, debtor’s prisons would have more people from the lower classes in them. Henry Lee, the hero of the American Revolutionary War and father of Robert E. Lee, served time in a debtor’s prison after he fell on hard times. Lee died penniless in 1818.

Reform of Criminal Codes and Prisons

State criminal codes were being softened, influenced by progressive European practices.
The number of capital offenses was reduced, and harsh punishments like whipping and branding were gradually eliminated.
A new idea emerged that prisons should focus on reforming offenders, not just punishing them.
This led to the establishment of “reformatories,” “houses of correction,” and “penitentiaries,” aimed at encouraging penance and rehabilitation.

AHC Note — The first true penitentiary, designed to cause prisoners to experience regret, was the Eastern State Penitentiary in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It opened in 1829.

Cruel Treatment of the Mentally Ill in the 19th Century

Individuals suffering from mental illness were often subjected to extreme cruelty.
The medieval belief held that the mentally ill were possessed by unclean spirits, while the 19th Century view saw them as willfully depraved and perverse.
Many were chained in jails or poorhouses alongside sane individuals and received no specialized care.

Dorothea Dix and the Reform of Mental Health Care

Dorothea Dix (1802–1887), a dedicated New England teacher and author, emerged as a key figure in mental health reform.
Despite health issues, Dix showed compassion and determination.
Over 8 years, she traveled 60,000 miles, gathering evidence on the conditions of the mentally ill and asylums through firsthand observations.
Without ever raising her voice, Dix effectively communicated her findings, delivering a powerful message.
Her 1843 petition to the Massachusetts legislature described the horrific conditions in asylums, shocking legislators, who took action.
Dix’s efforts led to improved conditions in asylums and a shift in understanding, recognizing the mentally ill were suffering from illness.

The Pre–Civil War Peace Movement

The peace movement gained strength in the years before the Civil War.
The American Peace Society was founded in 1828, with a mission to fight against war.
William Ladd was a prominent advocate, delivering speeches even when his legs were severely ulcerated, requiring him to sit on a stool.
Ladd’s ideas would later influence 20th-Century international organizations focused on collective security.
The American peace movement was closely connected with a similar movement in Europe and was making progress by midcentury.
However, the peace crusade suffered setbacks due to the Crimean War in Europe and the Civil War in America.

Demon Rum — The “Old Deluder”

The Widespread Problem of Alcohol Abuse

Excessive drinking of hard liquor was common, influenced by social customs and the hardships of daily life.
Alcohol abuse was prevalent among all groups, including women, clergymen, and even members of Congress.
Weddings and funerals often degenerated into chaotic brawls, with incidents of drunken mourners falling into open graves.
Heavy drinking reduced labor efficiency and increased workplace accidents, especially with poorly safeguarded machinery.
Alcohol abuse disrupted family life, endangering the spiritual welfare and physical safety of women and children.

The Rise of the Temperance Movement

The American Temperance Society was established in Boston in 1826.
Within a few years, around 1,000 local temperance groups were formed nationwide.
These groups urged drinkers to sign temperance pledges and created children’s clubs called the “Cold Water Army.”
Temperance advocates used visual aids, pamphlets, and dramatic lectures, often delivered by reformed alcoholics.
A popular temperance song of the time reflected the movement’s spirit:

“We’ve done with our days of carousing,
Our nights, too, of frolicsome glee;
For now with our sober minds choosing,
We’ve pledged ourselves never to spree.”

The Impact of Ten Nights in a Barroom on the Temperance Movement

Ten Nights in a Barroom and What I Saw There (1854) by T. S. Arthur became the most popular anti-alcohol tract of the era.
Arthur told the story of how Sam Slade’s tavern destroyed a once-happy village.
It was a bestseller in the 1850s, second only to Uncle Tom’s Cabin, and was also adapted into a successful stage play.
The novel’s theme song, sung by a little girl, became iconic:

“Father, dear father, come home with me now,
The clock in the belfry strikes one.”

Strategies in the Fight Against Alcohol

Early opponents of alcohol, often called “Demon Drink,” pursued two main strategies.
One approach focused on strengthening individuals’ willpower to resist alcohol, emphasizing “temperance” rather than complete abstinence or “teetotalism.”
More impatient reformers advocated for removing the temptation altogether through legislation.

Neal S. Dow and the Maine Law of 1851

Neal S. Dow, known as the “Father of Prohibition,” was a key figure in the temperance movement and a strong advocate for legal measures against alcohol.
As the mayor of Portland, Maine, and an employer, Dow saw firsthand the damaging effects of alcohol on workers and the financial cost of lost productivity due to drunkenness.
Dow sponsored the Maine Law of 1851, a statute that prohibited the manufacture and sale of liquor.
The law was praised as “the law of Heaven Americanized.”
Inspired by Maine, about a dozen Northern states passed similar laws by 1857.
The impact was limited, as many of these laws were repealed, declared unconstitutional, or simply ignored within a decade.

The Limitations and Successes of Early Prohibition Efforts

Despite efforts, it was impossible to eliminate the desire for alcohol through legislation, particularly in areas where public sentiment opposed such laws.
However, by the eve of the Civil War, prohibitionists had achieved notable successes.
There was a significant reduction in alcohol consumption among women compared to earlier in the century.
Overall, the per capita consumption of hard liquor had likely decreased as a result of the temperance movement’s efforts.

Women in Revolt

The Status of Women at the Start of the 19th Century

Society was dominated by men in both America and Europe.
A wife was often expected to focus on her home and submit to her husband.
Women, especially black slaves, were denied the right to vote and could legally be beaten by their husbands with a “reasonable instrument.”
Upon marriage, a woman lost ownership of her property, which automatically transferred to her husband.
American women generally fared better than their European counterparts.
Alexis de Tocqueville observed that in France, rape was punished lightly, while in America it was considered a severe crime, punishable by death.

The Emerging Independence of Women in the 19th Century

Despite some advantages, women were still considered “the submerged sex” in America.
Over time, women sought greater freedom and self-determination.
Unlike in colonial times, an increasing number of women chose to avoid marriage.
By the time of the Civil War, about 10% of adult women remained unmarried, often referred to as “spinsters.”

Gender Roles in 19th-Century America

Gender differences were emphasized, partly due to the growing Market Economy, which created distinct economic roles for men and women.
Women were perceived as physically and emotionally weak but also as artistic, refined, and morally sensitive.
Women were regarded as the guardians of society’s conscience, with the special duty of teaching children to become good and productive citizens.
Men were seen as strong but rough, with a tendency toward savagery or brutality if not kept in check by the gentle influence of women.

The “Cult of Domesticity” and Women’s Growing Discontent

The home was considered a woman’s special domain, central to the “Cult of Domesticity.”
Reformers like Catharine Beecher encouraged women to pursue teaching but still emphasized the importance of being a good homemaker.
Over time, some women saw the role of homemaker as a cage.
They sought to break free and join the public world that was dominated by men.

The Rise of Female Reformers in the Mid-19th Century

White and well-to-do female reformers became increasingly vocal and influential.
These women were involved in multiple causes, advocating for women’s rights while also participating in broader movements like temperance and abolition.
Like their male counterparts, these women were inspired by the evangelical spirit, which promised earthly rewards for righteous efforts.
Despite criticism and opposition from men, these determined women continued their fight, undeterred by insults or challenges.

Leading Figures of the Women’s Rights Movement

The women’s rights movement was led by several notable figures.

Lucretia Mott — a spirited Quaker, became a prominent advocate after she and other female delegates were denied recognition at the 1840 London Anti-Slavery Convention.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton — a mother of seven, made waves by omitting “obey” from her marriage vows and advocating for women’s suffrage.
Susan B. Anthony — raised as a Quaker, became a militant lecturer for Women’s Rights and often suffered from having rotten garbage and insults thrown at her during public appearances. Anthony was so influential that progressive women were often nicknamed “Suzy Bs.”

Pioneering Feminists and Their Challenges to the Status Quo

Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell became the first woman to graduate from a medical college, breaking barriers in a male-dominated profession.
Margaret Fuller, a precocious intellect, edited the transcendentalist journal The Dial and participated in the effort to unify Italy and establish a republican government. She tragically died in a shipwreck off Fire Island, New York, in 1850.
The Grimké sisters, Sarah and Angelina, were strong advocates for both women’s rights and abolition.
Lucy Stone made a statement by retaining her maiden name after marriage, inspiring later women known as “Lucy Stoners” who followed her example.
Amelia Bloomer challenged conventional women’s fashion by adopting a short skirt paired with Turkish trousers, known as “bloomers.” This fashion statement led to widespread ridicule, with critics mocking “Bloomerism” and “loose habits.”
A popular mocking rhyme of the time reflected the resistance to these changes:

“Gibbey, gibbey gab
The women had a confab
And demanded the rights
To wear the tights
Gibbey, gibbey gab.”

The Seneca Falls Convention

In 1848, leading feminists convened in Seneca Falls, New York, for the first Woman’s Rights Convention.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton boldly presented the “Declaration of Sentiments,” echoing the Declaration of Independence by asserting that “all men and women are created equal.”
One of the key resolutions from the convention was the formal demand for women’s suffrage.
Despite facing widespread scorn and denunciation from the press and religious leaders, the Seneca Falls meeting is recognized as the launch of the modern women’s rights movement.

AHC Note — The Seneca Falls Convention was the starting point for the Women’s Rights Movement, inspiring similar gatherings and conventions across the country and laying the groundwork for the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920 (see Constitutional Amendments), giving women the right to vote in America’s democratic process.

Women’s Rights Movement Before the Civil War

The women’s rights movement lost momentum as the focus shifted to the abolition of slavery in the decade before the Civil War.
Despite progress, no woman had the right to vote, while any white male over 21, regardless of intelligence, could vote.
However, women were gradually gaining access to higher education, with colleges beginning to admit female students.
Legal progress was also made as some states, starting with Mississippi in 1839, allowed married women to own property.

Wilderness Utopias

New Harmony

Inspired by the utopian spirit of the time, reformers established over 40 cooperative, communistic, or “communitarian” communities.
In 1825, Robert Owen, a wealthy and idealistic Scottish textile manufacturer, founded a communal society in New Harmony, Indiana, with about 1,000 members.
Despite its name, New Harmony experienced little actual harmony, attracting not only hardworking visionaries but also radicals, work-shy theorists, and scoundrels.
The colony ultimately collapsed in a mire of contradictions and confusion.

Brook Farm

Brook Farm, located in Massachusetts, was founded in 1841 on 200 acres of poor soil.
The community was established by about 20 intellectuals who were committed to transcendentalism, emphasizing “plain living and high thinking.”
The community prospered moderately until 1846 when a large communal building was destroyed by fire shortly before its completion.
The loss led to the collapse of the Brook Farm venture, which ended in debt.
The experiment inspired Nathaniel Hawthorne’s novel The Blithedale Romance (1852), with its main character modeled after feminist writer Margaret Fuller.

The Oneida Community

The Oneida Community was established in New York in 1848.
The community practiced “complex marriage,” a form of free love, as well as birth control through “male continence” (coitus reservatus).
They also implemented eugenic practices, selecting parents to produce superior offspring.
The Oneida Community thrived for over 30 years, largely due to the success of its artisans in producing superior steel traps and the well-known Oneida Community silverware.

The Rise and Decline of Communistic Experiments and the Shakers

Numerous communistic experiments, mostly small-scale, have been attempted since the founding of Jamestown.
These experiments often failed or adapted over time, struggling to compete with democratic free enterprise and the availability of free land.
The Shakers, one of the longest-lasting sects, were led by Mother Ann Lee and began establishing religious communities in the 1770s.
By 1840, the Shakers had grown to about 6,000 members.
Their strict monastic customs, which prohibited marriage and sexual relations, led to their near extinction by 1940.

The Dawn of Scientific Achievement

Early American Focus on Practical Inventions Over Pure Science

Early Americans, dealing with the challenges of pioneering, prioritized practical inventions over pure scientific research.
Thomas Jefferson, a talented amateur inventor, won a gold medal for developing a new type of plow.
Notable contributions included the writings of mathematician Nathaniel Bowditch on practical navigation and oceanographer Matthew F. Maury on ocean winds and currents.
These works aimed to improve safety, speed, and efficiency in travel and commerce.
In the realm of basic science, Americans were primarily known for borrowing and adapting European discoveries.

Prominent American Scientists in the 19th Century

The Republic did have notable scientific talent despite its focus on practical inventions.
Professor Benjamin Silliman (1779–1864) was a leading chemist and geologist who taught at Yale College for over 50 years and made significant contributions through his writings.
Professor Louis Agassiz (1807–1873), a distinguished French-Swiss immigrant, taught at Harvard College for 25 years and was a pioneering biologist known for his emphasis on original research over rote memorization.
Professor Asa Gray (1810–1888) of Harvard College, known as the “Columbus of American Botany,” published over 350 works and set new standards in botanical education.

John J. Audubon

John J. Audubon (1785–1851) made significant contributions to American bird lore.
He became renowned for painting wild fowl in their natural habitats.
His book, Birds of America, gained widespread popularity with its magnificent illustrations.
The Audubon Society, dedicated to bird protection, was named in his honor, even though he hunted birds for sport in his youth.

Primitive Medical Practices in Early America

Medicine in early America was rudimentary by modern standards, despite the growth of medical schools.
Bloodletting remained a common, yet often harmful, treatment.
Smallpox outbreaks were feared, and other epidemics, like the yellow fever outbreak in Philadelphia in 1793, were devastating.
The yellow fever epidemic claimed several thousand lives, with corpse-wagon drivers regularly crying out, “Bring out your dead!” as they collected the deceased.

Common Health Issues and Short Life Expectancy

Many people in 19th Century America suffered from health problems, including malaria, rheumatism, general discomforts, and chills.
Illnesses were often caused by poor diet and eating habits, sudden changes in body temperature, and a lack of knowledge about germs and sanitation.
Life expectancy was short, with an average of about 40 years for a white person born in 1850, and even lower for black people.
Dental issues caused significant suffering, with tooth extraction often performed by the village blacksmith due to the lack of professional dentists.

Quack Remedies and Questionable Medical Practices

Self-prescribed patent medicines were widespread, with some dosages recommended for both people and horses.
Popular remedies included products like “Robertson’s Infallible Worm Destroying Lozenges.”
Fad diets, such as Sylvester Graham’s regimen of whole wheat bread and crackers, gained popularity.
Home remedies could be bizarre, like rubbing tumors with dead toads.
Even treatments by regular doctors were often harmful, leading Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes to remark in 1860 that humanity would be better off if contemporary medicines were thrown into the sea — though it would be worse for the fish.

AHC Note — Sylvester Graham was a Presbyterian minister and advocate of vegetarianism. Graham argued Americans suffered from illness and disease due to poor diets, which included a high intake of refined flour whitened with chemical agents.

AHC Note — Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. was a doctor and poet. His most famous literary work was the “Breakfast Table” series. Holmes was close with other popular writers, including Ralph Waldo Emerson and James Russell Lowe. Holmes gave the magazine The Atlantic Monthly its name and was a frequent contributor. His son, Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., was a justice on the United States Supreme Court.

Early Surgical Practices and the Advent of Anesthetics

Surgical patients were typically restrained during operations, often after being given a stiff drink of whiskey.
Surgeons worked quickly, despite the patients’ agonizing screams.
A significant medical advancement occurred in the early 1840s when several American doctors and dentists, working independently, successfully introduced the use of laughing gas and ether as anesthetics.

Artistic Achievements

Early American Architecture and European Influence

In the first half of the 19th Century, America made few significant architectural contributions, largely imitating European styles.
The young nation, focused on quickly building shelters, often modeled its public buildings and important structures after Greek and Roman designs.
These classical styles appeared somewhat out of place in the American wilderness.
A notable Greek Revival occurred between 1820 and 1850, partly inspired by the Greeks’ struggle for independence from the Ottoman Empire in the 1820s.
By the mid-century, there was growing interest in reviving Gothic architectural forms, characterized by pointed arches and large windows.

Thomas Jefferson — America’s Pioneering Architect

Thomas Jefferson was one of the most skilled American architects of his generation.
Jefferson designed his Virginia hilltop home, Monticello, with a classical style, making it one of the nation’s most elegant mansions.
He also created the quadrangle of the University of Virginia at Charlottesville, which stands as one of the finest examples of classical architecture in America.

Challenges Faced by Early American Painters

Painting in early America struggled due to the focus on survival in a developing society.
The fast-paced, busy lifestyle and lack of leisure time hindered the growth of painting as a profession.
There was also a shortage of a wealthy class willing to commission and pay for portraits.
As a result, many early American painters had to travel to England to receive proper training and find patrons.
During this period, America largely exported its artists while importing art from abroad.

Puritan Prejudices Against Art in Early America

Painting, much like the theater, was hindered by Puritan beliefs that viewed art as a sinful and often obscene waste of time.
John Adams expressed this sentiment by declaring he “would not give a sixpence for a bust of Phidias or a painting by Raphael.”
Even Edward Everett, a respected Boston scholar, and orator, succumbed to these views, draping the naked limbs of a statue of Apollo that he placed in his home.

Notable American Painters

Despite challenges, competent American painters began to emerge.

Gilbert Stuart (1755–1828), from Rhode Island, competed with top artists in Britain and painted several portraits of George Washington, though they were somewhat idealized and lacked full realism. By the time Washington posed for Stuart, he had lost his natural teeth, altering the shape of his face, which Stuart’s portraits did not fully capture.
Charles Willson Peale (1741–1827), a Maryland artist, created around 60 portraits of Washington, with the general patiently sitting for about 14 of them.
John Trumbull (1756–1843), who had served in the Revolutionary War, vividly recaptured its scenes and spirit in numerous striking canvases. Among Trumbull’s most famous works is his painting of the death of Joseph Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775).

Landscape Painting and the Rise of Photography

Following the War of 1812, American painters started shifting their focus from portraits to romantic depictions of local landscapes.
The Hudson River School was renowned for its excellence in this type of landscape art.
During this period, portrait painters faced growing competition from the invention of the daguerreotype, a crude form of photography perfected around 1839 by the Frenchman Louis Daguerre.

AHC Note — The Hudson River School was a group of painters who developed the first true “American” style. Led by Thomas Cole, they celebrated the beauty of nature and the landscape. Other prominent painters were Asher Durand, Frederic Church, and Albert Bierstadt.

The Evolution of American Music and the Influence of Minstrel Shows

American music started to break free from the restrictions of colonial times, where Puritans disapproved of non-religious singing.
Minstrel shows, featuring white actors in blackface, became a uniquely American form of entertainment.
The song “Dixie,” later the Confederates’ battle hymn, was ironically written in 1859 in New York City by an Ohioan.
Stephen Foster (1826–1864), a white Pennsylvanian, became famous for his black-inspired songs, despite only visiting the South once in 1852 after publishing “Old Folks at Home.”
Foster’s work captured the plaintive spirit of the slaves and made a significant contribution to American folk music.
Despite his early success, Foster’s life ended tragically as he lost his art, and popularity, and ultimately died in a charity ward after succumbing to alcoholism.

AHC Note — Minstrel Shows started in New York in the 1830s. Thomas Dartmouth Rice, known as the “Father of Minstrelsy,” developed the first popular blackface character, “Jim Crow” in 1830.

AHC Note — “Dixie” was written by Daniel Decatur Emmett, around 1859. Emmett was the founder of the “Virginia Minstrels,” the first troupe of blackface minstrels.

AHC Note — Stephen Foster is considered the “Father of American Music.” He was born on July 4, 1826 — the same day Thomas Jefferson and John Adams died. Foster wrote more than 200 songs in his lifetime, including “Oh! Susanna.” Foster was known for lyrics that appealed to the common man, and his folk songs were performed by traveling groups made up of black and white Americans, including the Fisk Jubilee Singers and the Christy Minstrels. Foster’s influence carried into the 20th Century and inspired folk artists like Woody Guthrie, Pete Seeger, and Bob Dylan.

The Blossoming of a National Literature

Early American Literature

In 1820, Reverend Sydney Smith, a Scottish critic wrote, “In the four quarters of the globe, who reads an American book?” reflecting the low regard for American literature at the time.
The rough, pioneering nature of early American society provided little support for the development of “polite” literature.
As a result, much of the reading material in America was either imported from or plagiarized from British sources.
Early works were political essays like the Federalist Papers by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison; influential pamphlets like Thomas Paine’s Common Sense; and powerful political speeches by figures such as Daniel Webster.
Among the few nonreligious books published before 1820 that achieved lasting recognition was Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography (1818).

American Literature and the Knickerbocker Group

A wave of nationalism following the War of 1812 boosted the development of distinctly American literature.
By 1820, the older seaboard regions had moved beyond the survival-focused mindset of early settlers, allowing literature to flourish as a profession.
The Knickerbocker Group, based in New York, was a leader in American literature, marking the first time the nation could claim a literary tradition worthy of its vast and varied landscapes.

Washington Irving

Washington Irving (1783–1859), born in New York City, became the first American writer to gain international recognition.
Immersed in the traditions of New Netherland, Irving published Knickerbocker’s History of New York in 1809, featuring humorous caricatures of the Dutch settlers.
When his family’s business failed, Irving turned to writing, publishing The Sketch Book in 1819–1820, which brought him instant fame both in America and Europe.
The book featured a blend of English and American themes, including iconic Dutch-American stories like “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.”
Irving’s writing, characterized by its charming style, delicate humor, and cultural insights, impressed European audiences, who were surprised to discover an American writer of such caliber.
He later expanded his work to include Spanish locales and biographies, helping to bridge cultural understanding between America and Europe.
English writer William Thackeray praised Irving as “the first ambassador whom the New World of letters sent to the Old.”

James Fenimore Cooper

James Fenimore Cooper (1789–1851) was the first American novelist to achieve international acclaim and elevate New World themes in literature.
He married into a wealthy family and settled on the New York frontier, where he became inspired by his surroundings.
After expressing frustration with a dull English novel he was reading to his wife, Cooper declared that he could write a better book.
His wife challenged him to prove it, leading him to produce his first novel.
After an initial failure, Cooper started his successful writing career in 1821 with his second novel, The Spy. This novel is set during the American Revolution.
Cooper is renowned for his Leatherstocking Tales. The series features Natty Bumppo, a skilled rifleman who engages in thrilling adventures with Indians. The Last of the Mohicans is one of the most famous books in this series.
Cooper’s novels were widely read in Europe. Some Europeans viewed all Americans through the lens of Cooper’s frontier adventures, imagining them as rugged, tomahawk-wielding individuals.
Through his work, Cooper explored the contrast between the idealized, natural values of the American frontier and the perceived artificiality of modern European civilization.

William Cullen Bryant

William Cullen Bryant (1794–1878) wrote the poem Thanatopsis at age sixteen, published in 1817. It was one of the first high-quality poems produced in the United States and received acclaim for its depth and quality.
Critics were astonished that such a notable poem came from an American writer.
Despite his success as a poet, Bryant earned his living as the editor of the New York Evening Post.
Bryant set high standards for poetry and journalism, contributing significantly to the development of American literature and media.

Trumpeters of Transcendentalism

Golden Age of American Literature (Early to Mid-19th Century)

The second quarter of the 19th Century marked a golden age in American literature.
A significant literary surge occurred, especially in New England.
Transcendentalism, a philosophical and literary movement, was a key influence.
Boston, often called “the Athens of America,” was a central hub for this literary flourishing.

Transcendental Movement

The Transcendentalist Movement emerged in the 1830s.
It partially resulted from a shift away from strict Puritan theology.
Foreign influences, including German romantic philosophy and Asian religions, played a role.
Transcendentalists rejected the theory that all knowledge comes solely from the senses, as proposed by John Locke.
They believed that truth “transcends” sensory experience and cannot be discovered by observation alone.
According to Transcendentalists, every person has an inner light capable of revealing the highest truths and connecting them directly with God, or the “Oversoul.”

Core Beliefs of Transcendentalism

Individualism — The movement emphasized strong personal independence in both religious and social contexts.
Self-Reliance and Self-Discipline — The movement valued self-reliance, self-culture, and self-discipline.
Hostility to Authority — It fostered resistance to authority, formal institutions, and conventional wisdom.
Dignity of the Individual — Transcendentalists celebrated the inherent dignity of every individual, contributing to various humanitarian reforms.

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Emerson was born in Boston in 1803 and was initially trained as a Unitarian minister before leaving the pulpit.
He gained recognition through his work as a lyceum lecturer, touring the western United States each winter for 20 years.
Emerson delivered the influential Phi Beta Kappa address “The American Scholar” at Harvard College in 1837.
He encouraged American writers to break free from European influences and explore and reflect on their own American experiences.
Emerson was hailed as a poet and philosopher, but his primary impact was as a practical philosopher.
He was known for his vibrant essays that enriched many lives and resonated with the individualistic spirit of America.
Emerson’s core beliefs emphasized self-reliance, self-improvement, self-confidence, optimism, and freedom.
He reflected the ideals of a growing America, aligning with its expanding values.
Emerson was a vocal critic of slavery and supported the Union during the Civil War.

Henry David Thoreau

Thoreau, a close associate of Ralph Waldo Emerson, was a poet, mystic, Transcendentalist, and nonconformist.
He was jailed for one night after refusing to pay a poll tax as a protest against the slavery-supporting government.
His major work was Walden: Or Life in the Woods (1854) — detailing his two years of simple living in a hut by Walden Pond, focusing on reducing material wants to pursue truth through study and meditation.
Walden and his essay On the Duty of Civil Disobedience had a significant impact on idealistic thought both in America and abroad.
His work inspired Mahatma Gandhi’s resistance to British rule in India and influenced Martin Luther King, Jr.’s approach to nonviolence.

Walt Whitman

Whitman was known for his brash demeanor.
His major work was Leaves of Grass (1855) — a collection of poems where he showcased his innovative style with what he described as a “barbaric yawp.”
Whitman’s style was highly romantic and unconventional, he often avoided traditional titles, stanzas, rhymes, and regular meter.
It was controversial for its depiction of sex and was banned in Boston.
At first, it was a financial failure.
Over time, the book gained acclaim and Whitman developed a significant following in both America and Europe.
His fame grew after his death, and his followers were known as “Whitmaniacs.”
Leaves of Grass earned him the informal title “Poet Laureate of Democracy.”
Whitman’s work celebrated the masses and the democratic spirit of an expanding America, as reflected in his lines:

“All the Past we leave behind;
We debouch upon a newer, mightier world, varied world;
Fresh and strong the world we seize — world of labor and the march —
Pioneers! O Pioneers!”

Glowing Literary Lights

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882) was a popular American poet.
He was a professor who taught modern languages at Harvard College.
Longfellow lived a mostly peaceful life, marred by the tragic death of his second wife when her dress caught fire.
His poems were popular among both the educated and less cultured masses.
He drew on European literature but also wrote about American traditions, with works like “Evangeline,” “The Song of Hiawatha,” and “The Courtship of Miles Standish.”
Longfellow was widely admired in Europe.
He was the only American honored with a bust in the Poets’ Corner of Westminster Abbey.

John Greenleaf Whittier

John Greenleaf Whittier (1807–1892) was a prominent poet and Quaker.
He was known for his strong stance against slavery and social injustices.
Whittier’s poems criticized inhumanity, injustice, and outdated traditions.
He was less skilled as a writer compared to Longfellow but had a significant impact on social change.
Despite facing insults and mob violence, he actively promoted the antislavery cause.
Whittier was seen as a major moral and humanitarian force of his time.
He was regarded as a poet dedicated to human freedom.

James Russell Lowell

James Russell Lowell (1819–1891) was a versatile American poet and professor.
He succeeded Longfellow at Harvard and had talents in poetry, essay writing, literary criticism, editing, and diplomacy.
His varied roles somewhat limited his poetry output.
Lowell is notable for his political satire in Biglow Papers.
The Biglow Papers criticized the Polk administration’s alleged intentions to expand slavery.
These papers were written in Yankee dialect and addressed issues related to the Mexican War.

Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes

Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809–1894) was a distinguished poet, essayist, novelist, lecturer, and wit.
He taught anatomy at Harvard Medical School with enthusiasm.
Holmes was a notable nonconformist and conversationalist.
He was part of a literary circle in Boston, which was considered “the hub of the universe.”
His poem “The Last Leaf” honored the last survivor of the Boston Tea Party and later referred to himself.
Holmes passed away at age 85, being the “last leaf” among his prominent peers.

Louisa May Alcott

Louisa May Alcott (1832–1888) grew up in Concord, Massachusetts, surrounded by transcendentalist figures.
Her father, Bronson Alcott, was more focused on ideas than earning a living.
Louisa May Alcott wrote Little Women (1868) and other books to support her family.

Emilly Dickinson

Emily Dickinson (1830–1886) lived as a recluse in Amherst, Massachusetts.
Dickinson wrote poetry that explored themes of nature, love, death, and immortality using simple language and rhyme.
She did not publish her poems during her lifetime.
After her death, nearly 2,000 of her poems were discovered and published.

William Gilmore Simms

William Gilmore Simms (1806–1870) was a major literary figure from the South before the Civil War.
He wrote 82 books, earning him the title “the Cooper of the South” — a reference to James Fenimore Cooper.
His novels focused on the southern frontier and the South during the Revolutionary War.
Despite his prolific output, Simms was not widely accepted by the Southern elite.
He married into a socially elite family and became a slaveowner, but still faced neglect from his region.

Literary Individualists and Dissenters

Edgar Allan Poe

Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) was an eccentric genius with a troubled life.
Orphaned young, he faced illness, poverty, and debt throughout his life.
His wife, married at 13, died of tuberculosis, deepening his personal struggles.
Poe struggled with alcoholism and died young, partly due to his lifestyle.
He was a gifted lyric poet, known for “The Raven.”
Poe excelled in horror short stories, reflecting his dark visions.
He set high standards in the detective genre with stories like “The Gold Bug.”
Poe was fascinated by ghostly and ghastly themes, as seen in “The Fall of the House of Usher.”
His work reflected a morbid sensibility, contrasting with the typically optimistic American culture.
Poe’s dark themes have made him particularly valued by European readers.
His career ended abruptly when he was found drunk in a Baltimore gutter and died shortly after.

Nathaniel Hawthorne

Nathaniel Hawthorne grew up in Salem, Massachusetts, influenced by Puritan history and personal tragedy.
His masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter (1850), explores the Puritan practice of marking an adulteress with a scarlet “A.” The book examines the psychological effects of sin on the heroine and her secret lover, a minister.
In The Marble Faun (1860), Hawthorne tells the story of American artists who witness a murder in Rome. It explores themes of evil and the impact of the past on the present.

Herman Melville

Herman Melville, orphaned and poorly educated, spent 18 months on a whaler as a young man.
He described a whaling ship as “…my Yale College and my Harvard.”
After jumping ship in the South Seas and living among cannibals, Melville escaped unharmed.
His early South Seas tales were popular, but his epic novel Moby Dick (1851) initially was not.
Moby Dick is an allegory of good and evil, focusing on the conflict between Captain Ahab and the giant white whale, Moby Dick.
Captain Ahab, who lost a leg to Moby Dick, seeks revenge, but his pursuit ends with the whale sinking Ahab’s ship, leaving only one survivor.
The novel’s themes remain ambiguous, reflecting the vast and unknowable nature of the universe.
At its publication, Moby Dick was largely ignored as readers preferred straightforward and upbeat prose.
Melville, disheartened by the lack of success, continued to write without financial reward and worked as a customs inspector.
He died in relative obscurity and poverty.
Ironically, Moby Dick, with its complex themes, gained recognition and appreciation only in the more skeptical 20th century.

Portrayers of the Past

George Bancroft

George Bancroft (1800–1891) is known as the “Father of American History.”
He served as Secretary of the Navy and helped found the Naval Academy at Annapolis in 1845.
Bancroft published a patriotic history of the United States up to 1789 in 6 volumes (originally 10) from 1834 to 1876.
His work was based on extensive research in European and American archives.

William H. Prescott

William H. Prescott (1796–1859) lost sight in one eye while in college but continued to write.
He published influential histories of the conquest of Mexico (1843) and Peru (1847).

Francis Parkman

Francis Parkman (1823–1893) had severe vision problems and wrote with the aid of a guiding machine.
Parkman started his historical series in 1851, detailing the colonial struggle between France and Britain for control of North America.

Bias in Early American Historiography

Early prominent American historians were predominantly from New England.
Boston’s well-stocked libraries and literary tradition supported these historians.
Many of these writers had abolitionist connections, affecting their views on the South.
This early perspective led to a lasting anti-southern bias in American historical writing.

Additional Resources for Ferment of Reform and Culture

The notes on this page are based on the 16th edition of The American Pageant. We have expanded on the source material with additional details, corrections, and links to Encyclopedia Entries that explain topics in more detail. For more information, including terms and definitions, see the following:

Content for this article has been compiled and edited by American History Central Staff.