Francis Rawdon (Lord Rawdon), Officer (UK), Revolutionary War

Francis Rawdon-Hastings was a British officer during the American Revolutionary War. He is most famous for his role as a commanding officer of British forces in South Carolina from 1780 to 1781. During the war, he was commonly known as “Lord Rawdon.”

Personal Facts

Born: December 9, 1754, in County Down, Ireland.
Died: November 28, 1826, on a ship off the coast of Italy.
Title(s): 1st Marquess of Hastings, Earl of Moria.
Part Of: American Revolutionary War, British Southern Campaign.
Significance: Lord Rawdon is important to American History for the role he played in the American Revolutionary War, particularly in the Southern Theater.

American Revolutionary War

Lord Rawdon served in the American Revolutionary War (1775—1783) for seven years, with one short furlough.
He fought in the Battle of Bunker Hill, the first significant battle of the war.
Rawdon served on the staff of General Henry Clinton and was with him during the Battle of Sullivan’s Island, the New York Campaign, the Occupation of Philadelphia, and the Battle of Monmouth.
While in Philadelphia, he raised the “Volunteers of Ireland,” a Loyalist regiment.
After resigning from Clinton’s staff, he joined British forces in the South, under the command of General Charles Cornwallis.
Rawdon helped Cornwallis win the Battle of Camden and defeated American forces at the Battle of Hobkirk’s Hill.

Biography

Early Life

Francis Rawdon was born on December 9, 1754, in County Down, Ireland.
He was the son of John, Baron Rawdon (later the 1st earl of Moira), and Lady Elizabeth Hastings, daughter of the 9th earl of Huntingdon.
He was known as “Lord Rawdon” until 1783, when he inherited his father’s title.
Rawdon eventually became the first Marquess of Hastings and the second Earl of Moira.
He purchased a commission in the British Army as an Ensign (junior officer) in the 15th Regiment on August 7, 1771.
Rawdon enrolled in University College, Oxford, on October 23, 1771, and studied for 2 years.
He left Oxford and toured Europe with his uncle, Lord Huntingdon, in 1773.
His uncle purchased a promotion for him to Lieutenant in the 5th Regiment on October 20, 1773.

AHC Note

Rawdon adopted his mother’s surname in 1790, becoming Francis Rawdon-Hastings.
This was done so he could inherit his mother’s titles and properties.

Arrival in America

Rawdon sailed with his regiment to Boston, Massachusetts, on May 7, 1774, arriving there in July, as tension between the colonies and Britain was rapidly increasing over the Coercive Acts and the closure of the Port of Boston.

General Thomas Gage, the military Governor of Massachusetts and the commander-in-chief of the British Army in North America, was tasked with enforcing the Coercive Acts.
Rawdon was stationed at Castle William, at the mouth of Boston Harbor.
Following the Battles of Lexington and Concord, he joined the grenadier company of the 5th Regiment, under the command of Captain George Harris.
- Rawdon did not participate in the battles, but some of the grenadiers from his regiment did.
- He replaced a Lieutenant in the grenadiers who was taken prisoner during the battles.
- The commanding officer of the regiment was General Hugh Percy.

AHC Note

Grenadiers — Elite soldiers in each British regiment originally chosen for their strength to throw “hand bombs” during the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648). Over time, they became special companies used for dangerous or important missions. Each British regiment had one company of Grenadiers. The Continental Army modeled its organization after the British, but used two Light Infantry companies instead of Grenadier companies

Battle of Bunker Hill

Rawdon saw his first action of the war in the Battle of Bunker Hill, when approximately 2,400 British troops marched on the American redoubt on Breed’s Hill. These troops included the grenadiers and light infantry.

During the assault, a bullet passed through Rawdon’s hat, but he was not injured.
Rawdon recalled, “I was everywhere in the thickets of the fire.” See the Appendix below for Rawdon’s eyewitness account of the battle.
When Captain Harris was wounded, Rawdon took command of the grenadiers.
General John Burgoyne said Rawdon “stamped his fame for life” for his actions.
He was promoted to Captain in the 63rd Regiment on July 12, 1775.

AHC Notes

Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775) — The first major conflict of the American Revolutionary War. Colonial militia, though untrained, withstood repeated British assaults on Breed’s Hill before retreating when their ammunition ran low. Although the British drove the Americans from the hill, they suffered heavy casualties. The outcome boosted American morale and compelled the British to adopt a cautious approach in the early years of the war.
Winter of 1775–1776 — Rawdon participated in plays written by General John Burgoyne.

Aide to Clinton

On January 13, 1776, he became aide-de-camp to General Henry Clinton and deputy Adjutant General.

He served with Clinton during British operations against North Carolina in May 1776. After Loyalists were defeated at the Battle of Moore’s Creek Bridge (February 27, 1777), Clinton sailed to Charleston.
In June 1776, he witnessed failed British assaults on Charleston by Clinton and Admiral Peter Parker at the Battle of Sullivan’s Island.
Following the defeat at Sullivan’s Island, Clinton’s fleet returned north in July 1776.

AHC Notes

Aide-De-Camp — An officer who serves as an assistant to a senior officer.
Adjutant General — The head of an officer’s staff.
Henry Clinton (1730–1795) — Clinton was a British officer during the war. He was placed in command of British forces in 1778. Despite early success, he was unable to defeat American forces, which contributed to the Surrender at Yorktown in October 1781.
Peter Parker (1721–1811) — Parker was an Admiral in the British Royal Navy during the war. He commanded a British fleet at the Battle of Sullivan’s Island and transported British troops to Rhode Island in 1776.
Battle of Sullivan’s Island (June 28, 1776) — American forces defeated the British at the Battle of Sullivan’s Island in Charleston Harbor. The victory forced the British to delay a plan to subdue the Southern Colonies, and South Carolina remained under the control of the Patriots.

New York Campaign

Serving under Clinton, Rawdon participated in General William Howe’s invasion of New York, a campaign designed to capture New York City and destroy the Continental Army, which was led by General George Washington.

Howe started this campaign by landing his forces on Staten Island. His men harassed young American women, which Rawdon documented in a letter (see Appendix).

During this campaign, Clinton and his officers earned a reputation for military skill among their counterparts. However, Clinton often disagreed with Howe, creating tension between the two.

Rawdon served with Clinton at the Battle of Long Island.
He participated in the Landing at Kip’s Bay.
He fought in the Battle of White Plains.

AHC Notes

Battle of Long Island (August 27–29, 1776) — This was the first major battle after the Declaration of Independence was issued and the opening engagement of the New York Campaign. General William Howe led British forces in a successful flanking maneuver against American forces on Long Island, forcing them to retreat to Brooklyn Heights. Instead of launching an assault on the Americans, Howe prepared to lay siege to the Heights. However, Washington orchestrated a daring nighttime escape by transporting his troops across the East River to Manhattan Island.
Landing at Kip’s Bay (September 15, 1776) — Howe invaded Manhattan Island by landing his troops at Kip’s Bay. General Washington and General Israel Putnam tried to defend the area, but many of their troops panicked and fled, forcing a retreat. Putnam and his aide, Aaron Burr, successfully evacuated approximately 3,500 men from New York City to Harlem Heights. By mid-October, the British were in control of the city and had pushed the Americans to White Plains, New York.
Battle of White Plains (October 28, 1776) — Following engagements at Pell’s Point and Throg’s Point, Howe tried to outflank Washington at White Plains. The British attacked American forces on Chatterton’s Hill and forced them to withdraw after heavy fighting. Although the British won the field, Howe did not pursue Washington, allowing him to regroup his army and retreat into New Jersey.

With Clinton, 1776–1778

In December 1776, Howe placed Clinton in command of an expedition that was tasked with taking control of Newport, Rhode Island, and occupying the city. Rawdon accompanied Clinton on this operation, which was successful.

Afterward, Rawdon and Clinton returned to Britain for the winter.
They returned to New York City on July 5, 1777.

When Howe sailed south to carry out his Philadelphia Campaign, he left Clinton in command of New York. Rawdon remained with Clinton.

Clinton’s Hudson Highlands Expedition

In early October 1777, while General John Burgoyne was engaged with American forces at Saratoga, Clinton led an expedition into the Hudson Highlands to attack several American Forts. Rawdon participated in this expedition.

The main forts in the Highlands were Fort Clinton and Fort Montgomery, which were defended by the New York Militia under the command of brothers General George Clinton and General James Clinton.
These two forts were on the west shore of the Hudson River, separated by a deep, 120-foot gorge. At the bottom of the gorge was Popolopen Creek.\
He participated in the Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery and the capture of Fort Constitution.
On October 7, 1777, he carried the news of the victory to General Howe’s headquarters in Philadelphia. He remained briefly and returned to New York for the Winter of 1777–1778.

AHC Notes

Clinton’s Hudson Highlands Expedition (October 3–22, 1777) — A 1777 British military campaign led by General Henry Clinton during the larger Saratoga Campaign. While British forces captured key American positions along the Hudson River, they were unable to affect the battles near Bemis Heights, which led to General John Burgoyne’s surrender.
Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery (October 6, 1777) — British forces attacked Fort Montgomery, overwhelmed the garrison, and drove the Americans from the fort, despite the loss of Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell. Next, British and Hessian forces attacked Fort Clinton, overwhelmed the garrison, and took most of the Americans as prisoners.

Volunteers of Ireland

On May 1, 1778, Rawdon accompanied Clinton to Philadelphia after Clinton was appointed to replace Howe as commander-in-chief.

With Clinton’s support, Rawdon started forming a Loyalist regiment on May 25, 1778. This regiment, known as the “Volunteers of Ireland,” became one of the most effective Loyalist units in the British Army for the remainder of the war.

Rawdon mainly recruited Scots-Irish deserters from the Continental Army.
He personally paid most of the costs of raising the regiment.
Rawdon trained the regiment into one of the most effective Loyalist units.
He was appointed Colonel of the regiment.

On June 15, 1778, Rawdon was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel and appointed Adjutant General of the British Army in Philadelphia..

Monmouth and Return to New England

At the Battle of Monmouth, he formed the British line of battle during the retreat across New Jersey.
In July 1778, after reaching New York City, he briefly served aboard Admiral Lord Richard Howe’s flagship.

AHC Notes

Battle of Monmouth (June 28, 1778) — An indecisive but important engagement between George Washington’s Continental Army and General Henry Clinton’s British forces as they retreated from Philadelphia to New York. Despite initial confusion and a retreat led by Charles Lee, Washington restored order and stabilized the American line in extreme heat. Though both sides claimed victory, the battle demonstrated the improved discipline and endurance of the Continental Army after Valley Forge and confirmed Washington’s leadership and control over his troops.
Richard Howe (1726–1799) — The brother of General William Howe, he was an Admiral in the British Royal Navy and commanded naval forces from 1776 to 1778. He is often criticized for failing to capitalize on opportunities that might have ended the war as early as 1776.

Dispute with Clinton

Following the Battle of Rhode Island, tension developed between Rawdon and General Clinton after Clinton publicly criticized Rawdon for breaches of protocol.

Rawdon resigned as Adjutant General on September 3, 1779.
On December 26, 1779, Clinton sailed for Charleston, South Carolina, without Rawdon.

South with Cornwallis

In March 1780, Rawdon was ordered to march to South Carolina with 2,500 reinforcements, including the Volunteers of Ireland.
He joined General Charles Cornwallis and helped capture American defenses at Lempriere’s and Haddrell’s Points on April 25, 1780, during the Siege of Charleston.

AHC Notes

Siege of Charleston (April 1–May 12, 1780) — After General Benjamin Lincoln and the Southern Army took refuge in Charleston, Clinton led an expedition to South Carolina and laid siege to the city. British forces slowly advanced, forcing the Americans to surrender. Roughly 5,000 American soldiers were taken as prisoners, making it the most significant defeat for American forces during the war.

Battle of Camden

After Charleston surrendered on May 12, 1780, Rawdon was placed in command of the British garrison at Camden, South Carolina, where he led about 2,500 soldiers and fought against Patriot militia forces in the region.

In August 1780, Rawdon carried out maneuvers against General Horatio Gates, who was moving to attack Camden with his “Grand Army.”
Rawdon engaged Gates at Lynches Creek, which slowed the American advance and gave General Cornwallis time to reach Camden with reinforcements.
Rawdon fought under Cornwallis at the Battle of Camden. He commanded the left wing of the British Army and helped drive the Delaware and Maryland Continental soldiers from the field.

AHC Notes

Battle of Camden (August 16, 1780) — American forces were led by General Gates, who made critical tactical errors that led to the near destruction of his army. With the victory, British forces expanded their control of the Southern Colonies and threatened to invade North Carolina. The defeat effectively ended Gates’ military career, less than three years after he led American forces to victory at Saratoga.

Fall and Winter of 1780

After the victory at Camden, Cornwallis prepared to invade North Carolina. Rawdon accompanied him to Charlotte in October 1780.

After Major Patrick Ferguson was defeated in the Battle of Kings Mountain, Cornwallis withdrew from Charlotte and went to Winnsboro. Rawdon oversaw the march to Winnsboro.
When Cornwallis became ill, Rawdon temporarily commanded the army.
During the winter of 1780–1781, he returned to his outpost at Camden.

AHC Notes

Battle of Kings Mountain (October 7, 1780) — American militia forces known as the “Overmountain Men” surrounded and defeated Ferguson’s Loyalist force, which was camped on the top of Kings Mountain in present-day Blacksburg, South Carolina. The hour-long battle destroyed British hopes of rallying southern Loyalists, led to Ferguson’s death, and forced Cornwallis to withdraw from North Carolina. It marked a major turning point in the Southern Campaign and revitalized Patriot momentum in the American Revolution.

Command in the Carolinas

On January 1, 1781, General Cornwallis launched an invasion of North Carolina. Cornwallis left Rawdon in command of about 8,000 British troops in South Carolina and Georgia.

This was his first independent command, and he was just 26 years old.
Rawdon was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General
He did not receive his official commission before leaving the colonies in August 1781.

Clashes with Greene

In December 1780, General Nathael Greene arrived in North Carolina and took command of the Southern Department. He quickly organized a new Southern Army and, with General Daniel Morgan, initiated a plan to wear down and deteriorate British forces in the Southern Theater.

During this campaign, Rawdon and Greene clashed several times, while American forces, led by Thomas Sumter, Francis Marion, and Henry Lee, disrupted the British supply and communication lines between Camden and Charleston.

On March 15, 1781, Greene and Cornwallis fought at Guilford Courthouse, North Carolina.

This was a key battle in Greene’s Southern Campaign.
Greene’s army of Continentals and militia faced Cornwallis’s smaller but experienced British force.
Although the British won the field, they suffered losses that forced Cornwallis to withdraw to Wilmington.
Afterward, Greene marched south to challenge Rawdon at Camden.

On April 25, 1781, Rawdon fought Greene at the Battle of Hobkirk’s Hill, just north of Camden.

Greene had 1,550 men, while Rawdon had 800.
Although the Americans initially held the advantage, confusion among the Maryland regiments led to a retreat.
Despite Rawdon’s tactical victory, his weakened army soon abandoned Camden, allowing Greene to occupy the post.
This was a turning point in weakening British control of the South during.

After leaving Camden, Rawdon withdrew to Monck’s Corner, about 30 miles north of Charleston.

He gradually lost or abandoned most British posts in South Carolina and Georgia.
He focused on defending Charleston and Savannah while awaiting reinforcements from Ireland.

In late May 1781, Rawdon learned that Greene was laying siege to the British outpost at Ninety Six, which was defended by 550 New York Loyalists.

On June 3, Rawdon received 1,800 reinforcements from Ireland and marched to help the garrison at Ninety Six.
He reached the fort on June 21, only to find that Greene had already withdrawn.
On July 3, he abandoned Ninety Six and marched to Orangeburg.

Challenges and Controversy

During his tenure as commander of British forces in South Carolina, Rawdon faced several challenges and controversies that tarnished his reputation.

In South Carolina, he grew frustrated with the unreliable Loyalist Militia and insisted the war effort could not depend on Loyalist support.
Rawdon earned a reputation for harshness toward the local population.

After the Battle of Camden, he and the Volunteers of Ireland occupied the Waxhaws District. Rawdon published a proclamation threatening punishment for South Carolinians aiding rebels or deserters. He promised a bounty of five guineas for a deserter captured alive and 10 guineas if only the head was brought in.

When Cornwallis questioned him about it, Rawdon claimed it was intended only to frighten the locals.
However, it increased resentment toward the British in South Carolina.

Captured by the French

By this time, Rawson was suffering from a severe fever, and he transferred command of his forces to Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Stewart on July 20, 1781.

Rawdon departed for England on August 21.
His ship was captured by a French Privateer.
Rawdon was held for four months as a prisoner before his release was secured.
As a prisoner, he witnessed the Battle of the Capes.

AHC Notes

Battle of the Capes (September 5, 1781) — A naval engagement between the French fleet under Admiral de Grasse and the British fleet under Admiral Graves near the Virginia Capes. Although tactically a draw, the French prevented the British from reaching Yorktown, allowing Franco-American forces to trap Cornwallis. The British fleet withdrew, allowing the French fleet to maintain control of the Chesapeake Bay.

Return to England

Rawdon was exchanged in the spring of 1782 and returned to England, where he was criticized in Parliament for his involvement in the execution of American prisoner Isaac Hayne without trial. He defended his actions successfully and avoided censure.

On March 21, he was appointed Lieutenant Colonel of the 105th Regiment (Volunteers of Ireland).
On November 20, he was promoted to the rank of Colonel and named as an aide-de-camp to King George III.

Rawdon enjoyed a political career that lasted for more than three decades.

Rawdon was made a Baron on March 5, 1783.
He was elected to the Irish House of Commons and entered the British House of Lords.
He succeeded his father as the Earl of Moira on June 20, 1793, and was promoted to Major General on October 12, 1793.
In 1794, he fought with distinction under the Duke of York in Flanders during the French Revolutionary Wars.
He was promoted to Lieutenant General on January 1, 1798, and full General on September 25, 1803.
He commanded British forces in Scotland from February 1803 to February 1805.
On May 21, 1804, he was appointed Colonel of the 27th Regiment.
On March 1, 1806, he was made Constable of the Tower of London.
In 1804, he married Flora, Countess of Loudoun, and they had six children.
He was awarded the Order of the Garter on June 12, 1812.

Financial Trouble

By 1812, Rawdon faced financial troubles due to extravagant spending.
He lost most of his fortune and accumulated debts nearing £1,000,000.

Governor-General of India

To restore his finances, he accepted the position of Governor-General of India in 1813.
He served in India from 1813 to 1823, leading British forces in two major wars:
- The Nepal War (1814–1816).
- The Third Maratha War (1817–1819).
Parliament twice voted him formal thanks for his successes in India.
In February 1817, he was created Marquess of Hastings.
As Governor-General, he reformed education, the press, and the judiciary, and increased the profits of the East India Company.

At one point, he was accused of showing favoritism to friends but was cleared of wrongdoing. Despite this, he was removed from office and appointed Governor of Malta in 1824, where he ended his public career. He died in 1826.

Appendix

Eyewitness Account of the Battle of Bunker Hill

Francis, Lord Rawdon to his uncle, Francis, tenth Earl of Huntingdon.

Camp on the heights of Charlestown. 1775, June 20, Tues.

I have the pleasure, my dearest Lord, to inform you that we have at length given the rebels a signal defeat. On Saturday last, the 17th of this month, a large party of them were observed at work on the hills above Charlestown, throwing up a battery which would, if perfected, have probably destroyed the greatest part of Boston. The men-of-war in the harbour could not elevate their guns sufficiently to bear upon it, for which reason four twenty-four pounders were ordered from the artillery park to play upon it. They struck it several times, but being at a great distance, and the work of an extraordinary thickness and solidity, they could make no impression on it.

About noon the Grenadiers (in which corps I am), the Light Infantry and the Second Brigade, in all about 2,400 men, were ordered to embark under the command of General Howe. The shipping kept up so warm a cannonade on the coast that we landed without opposition within half a mile of Charlestown, which the fire from the vessels had forced the rebels to abandon. The work we had seen from Boston was upon the heights just above this town, but upon approaching it we perceived that it was continued quite to the bottom of the hill on the side where we landed. We had halted for some time till our cannon came up, during which time we perceived great numbers of the enemy marching into their works. Our cannon fired upon the entrenchment for some time, but it was so strong that our balls had no effect upon it, and their men kept so close behind it that they were in no danger.

Our men at last grew impatient, and all crying out, “Push on! push on!” advanced with infinite spirit to attack the work with their small arms. As soon as the rebels perceived this, they rose up and poured in so heavy a fire upon us that the oldest officers say they never saw a sharper action. They kept up this fire till we were within ten yards of them; nay, they even knocked down my captain, close beside me, after we had got into the ditch of the entrenchment. Nothing, however, could long resist the courage of our men. The rebels were obliged to abandon the post, but continued a running fight from one fence, or wall, to another, till we entirely drove them off the peninsula of Charlestown. The night coming on we threw up a kind of breast-work and stood to our arms all night, but they did not attack us. We have now fortified our camp, and are in daily expectation of having another brush with them.

Their army consisted of above 6,000 men, a force which, situated as they were, should have kept off five times our number. Our loss is very great. There are above sixty officers killed and wounded, and men in proportion. The rebels had above ninety killed on the spot, besides wounded and prisoners. General Putnam, who commanded them (and is a very brave fellow), was shot through the thigh, but got off. The famous Doctor Warren, the greatest incendiary in all America, was killed on the spot. Only eleven of our Grenadier company are left; other companies have suffered even more. I received no hurt of any kind, but a ball passed through a close cap which I had made in imitation of the foreign travelling caps and wore for convenience sake, for we no longer think of appearances at present. I was everywhere in the thickest of the fire and flatter myself that I behaved as you could wish.

Eyewitness Account of the British Landing on Staten Island

Francis, Lord Rawdon, to Francis, tenth Earl of Huntingdon.

Staten Island, near New York, August 5, 1776.

We are just arrived here, my dearest Lord, after a very pleasant passage…

…The fair nymphs of this isle are in wonderful tribulation, as the fresh meat our men have got here has made them as riotous as satyrs. A girl cannot step into the bushes to pluck a rose without running the most imminent risk of being ravished, and they are so little accustomed to these vigorous methods that they don’t bear them with the proper resignation, and of consequence we have most entertaining courts-martial every day.

To the southward they behaved much better in these cases, if I may judge from a woman who having been forced by seven of our men, [came] to make a complaint to me “not of their usage,” she said; ‘‘No, thank God, she despised that,” but of their having taken an old prayer book for which she had a particular affection.

A girl on this island made a complaint the other day to Lord Percy of her being deflowered, as she said, by some grenadiers. Lord Percy asked her how she knew them to be grenadiers, as it happened in the dark. “Oh, good God,” cried she, “they could be nothing else, and if your Lordship will examine I am sure you will find it so.”

All the English troops are encamped, or in cantonment, upon this island, as healthy and spirited a body of men as ever took the field. Several transports with Highlanders have been taken by the rebel privateers; the rest are all arrived, and are so enraged against the Yankees for some insults offered to their captive comrades that I think the first corps of psalm-singers who come in the way of their broad swords will be in a very awkward situation. Should my grandmother want any cherubins to adorn a new chapel, I dare say the Highlander would supply her with heads of the elect for that purpose at a cheap rate; but my grandmother will probably change sides when she hears that the Hessians sing hymns as loud as the Yankees, though it must be owned they have not the godly twang through the nose which distinguishes the faithful

Some of the Hessians are arrived and long much to have a brush with the rebels, of whom they have a most despicable opinion. They are good troops but in point of men nothing equal to ours.

Some of the Guards are arrived, but not yet landed. Everybody seems to have formed a most favourable opinion of them. The desire they have shown to come upon service has pleased the line exceedingly and it will be their own faults if they do not keep this tide of applause in their favour.

I imagine that we shall very soon come to action, and I do not doubt but the consequence will be fatal to the rebels. An army composed as theirs is cannot bear the frown of adversity. General Carlton’s successes in Canada have dispirited them exceedingly: their situation is critical, with his victorious army in their rear whilst they have such a force as ours in front. They have mustered all their troops to meet us and have entrenched themselves every where, but they will not be trifling obstacles that will stop a body of men so keen for service as ours are. I speak always with due submission to the goddess Nemesis, but I think she owes the Americans a croc-en-jambe, and when she pays it, I flatter myself she will do it effectually. Every measure, indeed, which can ensure success seems to have been taken on our side, and though I do not by any means deny the powerful influence of your deity. Fortune, upon all human affairs, I think there are certain precautions which have wonderful efficacy in deciding the event of every undertaking.

I am still with General Clinton.

Written by Randal Rust