The French and Indian War

Overview

The French and Indian War was the North American portion of a worldwide contest for empire between Britain, France, Spain, and other European nations. In Europe, the conflict is known as the Seven Years’ War.

Most of the fighting in North America took place in Canada and the Ohio Country, west of the Appalachian Mountains. During the war, both the French and British were allied with different Native American Indian tribes.

The main cause of the war was a dispute over control of the Ohio Country, as the French tried to stop the westward expansion of the American Colonies, which threatened French trade with the Indians in the region. 

The conflict started in western Pennsylvania in 1754, when British forces, led by young George Washington, engaged the French at Jumonville Glen and Fort Necessity. The following year, the British launched three campaigns against French strongholds, but all of them failed, including a disastrous defeat at the Battle of the Monongalela.

Despite early French victories, the British ultimately prevailed, capturing Quebec, Fort Duquesne, Detroit, and Montreal. These victories were primarily led by General Jeffery Amherst and General James Wolfe.

Negotiations led to the Treaty of Paris, which took effect in 1763, and virtually expelled France from eastern North America, leaving Great Britain in control of a vast empire inhabited by hostile Native American Indians and coveted by American colonists eager for westward expansion — a recipe for disaster.

Essential Facts

• The French and Indian War was the fourth conflict in North America between England, France and their respective Indian allies.
• It started in 1754 and ended in 1763, when the Treaty of Paris took effect.
• The war started in North America and spread to Europe, where it is known as the Seven Years’ War.
• The war started in western Pennsylvania, but carried over to Canada, the Southern Colonies, and the Caribbean.

Causes

• France established a series of forts in the Ohio Country to strengthen its claim to the region and impede the westward expansion of the American Colonies.
• Lingering tensions between New France and the American Colonies from the previous French and Indian Wars, especially over the Fur Trade and territorial boundaries.
• The Ohio Country was part of the “Dark and Bloody Ground” that eventually became Kentucky, West Virginia, and Ohio.

Outcome

• France lost nearly all of its territory in North America.
• Britain gained control of the Ohio Country and Canada.
• Spain gained control of the Louisiana Territory.
• Indians revolted against the British in Pontiac’s Rebellion.
• King George III and the Board of Trade issued the Proclamation of 1763, restricting the westward expansion of the colonies.
• Britain decided to keep a standing army in the colonies. To fund it, Parliament enforced the Navigation Acts and imposed taxes on Americans with the Sugar Act (1764) and the Stamp Act (1765).

Significance

The French and Indian War is important to American History because the outcome gave Britain control of Canada and a significant portion of the present-day United States. It was the most destructive conflict between France and England in North America and changed the course of North America. After the removal of French forces, Britain changed its focus toward the Indians and American Colonies, which set the stage for tensions that led to the American Revolution.

History

The First Three French and Indian Wars

Before the French and Indian War started in 1754, France and England clashed over territory, the Fur Trade, and alliances, including those with the Creek, Cherokee, and Iroquois Confederacy, among others. This led to three wars:

1. King William’s War (1689–1697) — The first conflict in North America between England, France, and their respective Indian allies. There was no clear victor in the war, which was an extension of the Nine Years’ War. However, it set the stage for future conflicts in North America between the European powers as they fought for control of the Fur Trade and dominance of the continent.
2. Queen Anne’s War (1702–1713) — The second conflict in North America between England, France, and their respective Indian allies. Ultimately, England gained significant territory in Canada and secured the rights to the Spanish Asiento System, which was the North American extension of the War of the Spanish Succession. However, the Treaty of Utrecht failed to clearly establish the border between New France and New England, a factor that contributed to the outbreak of King George’s War.
3. King George’s War (1744–1748) — The third major conflict in North America between England, France, and their respective Indian allies. It was the North American extension of the War of the Austrian Succession. During the war, British forces under the command of Massachusetts Governor William Shirley successfully captured Fort Louisbourg at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. The fighting ended on October 18, 1748, when the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed by Britain, France, and the Dutch Republic. In the agreement, all territories were restored, including Fort Louisbourg, which was returned to New France.

Population Growth in the English Colonies

The population of British America grew rapidly during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, due largely to the influx of Scots-Irish and German immigrants settling in the Backcountry. 

• In 1700, the population was approximately 250,000; by 1750, it had reached 1.2 million, and by 1760, it had increased to 1.6 million.
• The rise in land speculation, land companies, and frontier settlement increased contact among English settlers, the French, and Indians.
• The English colonies transitioned from small outposts to large, profitable, and well-populated settlements.

The Ohio Company of Virginia

Due to the growth, several colonies sought to expand westward across the Appalachian Mountains. In 1748, a group of investors in Virginia and England formed the Ohio Company, intending to settle the land between the Monongahela River, on the western border of Pennsylvania, south to the Kanawha River, on the western frontier of Virginia. 

• The investors intended to open trade with the Indians in the region.
• The Ohio Company was granted 200,000 acres on July 12, 1749.
• The company hired Christopher Gist to explore and survey the territory.
• A trading post was established at Will’s Creek, Maryland, which served as the Ohio Company’s frontier headquarters. It was referred to as “the last Virginia outpost in the Ohio Country.”
• The company cut the first road over the Allegheny Mountains, known as the Nemacolin Road.

French Reaction

Soon after, the French sought to strengthen their alliances with the Indians and work with them to slow the westward expansion of the British Colonies. Between 1748 and 1754, the French sought to secure control over the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes, areas that were not yet settled by the British.

• French forces reoccupied the fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island.
• France strengthened or rebuilt Fort Gaspereau in Nova Scotia, Fort St. Frederic in New York, Fort Niagara in New York, and Fort Toulouse in Alabama.
• France established new garrisons at Fort Beausejour in Nova Scotia and Fort La Presentation, also known as La Galette, in New York.

Battle of Pickawillany

As the French increased their presence, Pennsylvania traders concentrated their business at the Miami town of Pickawillany, near present-day Piqua, Ohio.

In 1752, the French sent a force of approximately 300 men into the Ohio Country to dislodge any British they encountered. This force was made up of French fur traders (coureurs de bois) and Ottawa warriors. This led to the Battle of Pickawillany (June 21, 1752), in which the Miamis were driven from the town, and British traders were taken captive. 

Initially, the British did nothing to retaliate, which led the Miamis and other Indian tribes in the region to consider aligning with the French.

French Forts in the Ohio Valley

In the aftermath of Pickawillany, English-speaking fur traders in the region were killed, captured, or forced to flee. Meanwhile, the French started fortifying their position in the Ohio Valley by building forts and sending approximately 1,200 soldiers into the region.

• In 1753, French troops began building Fort Presque Isle, Fort Le Boeuf, and Fort Venango in western Pennsylvania.
• These forts stood along the portage from Lake Erie to the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers.
• France planned another fort at the Forks of the Ohio in early 1754.

The French hoped these forts would encourage the Iroquois, Shawnee, and Delaware to join their cause.

• Some Indians were hesitant to fight the English, as they felt they were better trade partners than the French. The English usually offered them better goods and cheaper prices.

AHC Notes

• Portage — A path between two bodies of water, where travelers have to carry boats and supplies. Traders and explorers often used boats for transportation, but were forced to carry them when waterways were too shallow or they needed to travel in a different direction.
• Forks of the Ohio — The confluence of the Monongahela and Allegheny Rivers, where the Ohio River begins at present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Britain Responds

On August 28, 1753, Robert d’Arcy, the Earl of Holderness and the British Secretary of State for the Southern Department, which included North America, issued orders to the Governors of the British Colonies in North America. 

• Holderness instructed them to request the French to withdraw from any contested areas. 
• If the French refused, the Governors were given permission to use military force against them.

1753 — Washington’s First Expedition

In response, Lieutenant Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia sent 21-year-old Major George Washington and 11 men, including Christopher Gist, to Fort Le Boeuf, the closest French outpost in what is now northwestern Pennsylvania.

• Washington and his men arrived at the fort on December 11, 1753, where they were welcomed by Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, the commanding officer. 
• While Saint-Pierre acknowledged Dinwiddie’s demand, he informed Washington that all he could do was send it to his superiors in Quebec. 

Saint-Pierre graciously hosted Washington and his small party for three days. During this time, Washington took detailed notes about the fort. When Washington left, Saint-Pierre gave him a letter for Dinwiddie. The letter informed Dinwiddie that his demands needed to be sent to the Major General of New France in the capital, Quebec City.

While Washington was at Fort Le Boeuf, he took notes about the French military strength and learned that they were planning to build a flotilla of boats, which they would use to send troops to defend the Forks of the Ohio.

1754 — Fort Prince George at the Forks of the Ohio

After Washington returned to Virginia, Dinwiddie organized an expedition to advance to the Forks of the Ohio, which Virginia claimed. Dinwiddie wanted to build a fort, called Fort Prince George, before the French could build one of their own. 

• This expedition was led by Captain William Trent and left for the Forks of the Ohio in January 1754. 
• Construction of the fort started on February 17, 1754.

Meanwhile, Dinwiddie dispatched Virginia military forces under the command of Colonel Joshua Fry to assist in defending the fort. 

• Washington, who has been promoted to Lieutenant Colonel, led an advance force of 150 men ahead of Fry’s column. 
• He was tasked with helping Trent complete the construction of the fort and protecting it from the French.

Unfortunately, Fry’s expedition did not leave Virginia until April 2. By then, it was too late.

On April 18, a French force of 500 men under the command of Captain Claude Pierre Pecaudey de Contrecoeur arrived at the construction site of Fort Prince George. 40 workers, led by Ensign Edward Ward, were working on the fort when Contrecoeur aimed more than a dozen cannons at them. Ward surrendered without a fight.

The French proceeded to tear down Fort Prince George and constructed Fort Duquesne on the same site. The fort and the French presence threatened British traders and their Indian allies, primarily the Mingo Tribes, who were in the area.

The Albany Congress and Plan of Union

Meanwhile, British officials in London decided to take action. The Board of Trade sent instructions to George Clinton, the Governor of New York, instructing him to invite representatives from several colonies, along with representatives of the Iroquois Confederacy, to a meeting. 

At the time, the alliance between the Iroquois and the British — known as the Covenant Chain — was broken. The Board wanted the governors to meet with the Iroquois and restore the alliance. Ultimately, the Albany Congress (June 19–July 11, 1754) was successful in restoring the Covenant Chain. 

However, additional meetings also saw a proposal of the Albany Plan of Union, which would have created an intercolonial government for the colonies. The plan was based on a set of notes Benjamin Franklin wrote down during his trip to Albany, and was supplemented by other delegates, including Thomas Hutchinson of Massachusetts. 

Although the Albany Plan of Union was rejected by colonial governors and British officials in London, it sparked the idea that the colonial government’s structure needed to be overhauled. This contributed to a plan that Francis Bernard, the Governor of Massachusetts, eventually developed.

Washington Arrives at Great Meadows

While the delegates to the Albany Congress were preparing to make the journey to New York, Washington and his men arrived at a place called Great Meadows on May 24, 1774. 

Great Meadows was a large clearing with ample grass to feed the animals, and a nearby water source was available. 

The next day, May 25, Washington’s commanding officer, Colonel Joshua Fry, died from injuries he sustained in a fall from his horse. Command of the entire military expedition passed to Washington.

• Washington was about 60 miles southeast of the Forks. 
• He planned to camp at Great Meadows and wait for reinforcements. 
• He had his men build a crude wooden structure for protection and to use as a base of operations. It is known as Fort Necessity.

May 27, 1754 — Battle of Jumonville Glen

Washington had around 150 Virginia militiamen and Indian allies with him. Soon after he arrived, a Mingo chief named Tanacharison, who was more popularly known as the “Half King,” told Washington that he had seen a French scouting party in the area.

On the night of May 27, 1754, at Jumonville Glen, Washington and the Half-King led a contingent of men through the forest. Early on May 28, they surrounded and surprised the French camp. The battle was nothing more than a skirmish, and the French quickly surrendered.

The leader of the French force, Ensign Joseph Coulon de Villiers, Sieur de Jumonville, insisted that they were on a diplomatic mission, similar to the one Washington had undertaken to Fort Le Boeuf the year before. 

Despite Jumonville’s plea, the Half-King and his Mingo warriors, to Washington’s horror,  massacred nearly all the French. Washington and his men gathered the survivors and took them back to Great Meadows. However, a Frenchman by the name of Monceau had escaped during the battle and traveled to Fort Duquesne to report the attack.

July 3, 1754 — Battle of Fort Necessity

Jumonville’s brother, Captain Louis Coulon de Villiers, led a force of 600 Canadians and 100 Indians in pursuit of Washington and his men. Washington was aware that the French were moving against him, so he fortified Fort Necessity by building earthworks around the walls.

The French arrived on July 3, 1754. Washington was outmanned and outgunned. He was likely saved by the heavy rains that fell, which limited the fighting. However, after a 10-hour siege, Washington knew he could not win, so he proceeded to negotiate with the French.

Washington was forced to sign Articles of Capitulation. However, thanks to an error by his translator, he mistakenly admitted to assassinating Ensign Jumonville. When news of Jumonville’s death reached France, there was outrage. 

Although France did not immediately declare war, the two small battles near the Forks of the Ohio are considered by many to be the start of the final French and Indian War.

Washington abandoned Fort Necessity on the morning of July 4, 1754. A week later, the Albany Congress came to a close. 

1755 — Initial British Campaigns

For the 1755 campaign, both the British and French governments devised plans to conduct the war in North America.

• They sent regular troops from Europe to engage in battle, and planned to have support from colonial militias and Indian allies.
• Enthusiasm for the war spread through the colonies, and more than 2,000 recruits joined the British Army, while 6,500 provincial (colonial) soldiers volunteered for service.

General Edward Braddock and British officials designed a campaign that included attacks on three key French positions: 

1. Fort Duquesne at the Forks of the Ohio
2. Fort Niagara on Lake Ontario
3. Fort St. Frederic at Crown Point on Lake Champlain

Congress of Alexandria at Carlyle House

Braddock and British troops arrived in Williamsburg, Virginia, in February 1755. Upon his arrival, Braddock called for a conference of colonial governors from Maryland (Horatio Sharpe), Massachusetts (William Shirley), New York (James DeLancey), Pennsylvania (Robert Hunter Morris), and Virginia (Robert Dinwiddie). 

The meeting was held on April 15, 1755, at the home of John Carlyle, a prominent Virginia merchant and an investor in the Ohio Company. Sir William Johnson, who had key relations with the Indians, also attended the meeting.

Braddock presented the plan for the expeditions and asked for money from the governors to help fund them. The governors declined to provide money but agreed to the plan and to supply troops.

• Braddock was tasked with leading the expedition to Fort Duquesne.
• William Shirley led the expedition to Fort Niagara.
• William Johnson led the expedition to Fort St. Frederic.

Enthusiasm for the war spread through the colonies, and more than 2,000 recruits joined the British Army, while 6,500 provincial (colonial) soldiers volunteered for service.

Braddock’s Road

On May 29, 1755, the expedition to Fort Duquesne, under the command of General Edward Braddock, started to move west. To make their way through the thick wilderness, the men were forced to cut a path, known as Braddock’s Road. 

Some of the 2,500 men involved in the expedition and the construction of the road were Thomas Gage, Charles Lee, George Washington, Horatio Gates, William Crawford, and Charles Scott. Among the wagoneers were Daniel Boone and Daniel Morgan. 

While the expedition made its way to Fort Duquesne, it was harassed by Indians who were allied with the French. Meanwhile, Captain Claude de Contrecoeur, commander of the French forces at the fort, gathered Indian allies, including Ottawas, Ojibwas, and Potawatomis. He planned to make a surprise attack on Braddock’s Expedition, which would be led by Captain Daniel Liénard de Beaujeu.

July 9, 1755 — Braddock’s Defeat at Monongahela

Braddock’s Expedition crossed the Monongahela River, about 10 miles south of Fort Duquesne. Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage commanded the advance force, which came into contact with Indians who were moving into position for the ambush.

• The British fired first and killed French commander Captain de Beaujeu.
• Indian warriors and Canadian soldiers took cover and returned fire against the British.
• The British main force collided with the retreating advance guard, causing confusion.

In the three-hour battle that followed, Braddock was mortally wounded, and the British suffered heavy casualties. 

• The Indians and Canadians fired on the British from behind trees and rocks.
• After Braddock fell, regulars broke ranks.
• George Washington, who was his aide, took command and ordered the men to retreat along Braddock’s Road. Then he organized his Virginians to cover the retreat.

Braddock died of his wounds on July 13 at Great Meadows, and Washington led the survivors back to Fort Cumberland in Maryland. 

• Around half of Braddock’s troops were killed or wounded.
• The French forces suffered minimal casualties.
• This event is known as “Braddock’s Defeat” and the “Battle of the Monongahela.”

Braddock’s failure is often attributed to his arrogance and refusal to use Indian allies in his campaign.

• Only eight Indian scouts accompanied Braddock’s expedition.
• One of these scouts later recalled that Braddock treated them poorly, comparing them to animals and ignoring their advice.

With the victory, the French gained complete control of the Ohio Valley and the Forks of the Ohio. They also captured some of Braddock’s papers and correspondence, which provided them with the details of the rest of the British campaign, including the expeditions led by William Johnson and William Shirley.

Shirley’s Failed Campaign

• After Braddock’s death, command of the military passed to Massachusetts Governor William Shirley.
• Shirley halted his expedition to Fort Niagara at Oswego due to a lack of supplies.

Johnson’s Failed Campaign

Colonel William Johnson intended to capture Fort Carillon and then besiege Fort St. Frederic, with 3,000 provincial soldiers and 300 Iroquois warriors. Meanwhile, Baron Jean-Armand de Dieskau led a force of 1,600 French and Indians to ambush Johnson as he marched toward Lake Champlain.

On the morning of September 8, a British force led by King Hendrick and Colonel Ephraim Williams was ambushed. Hendrick and Williams were killed in the “Bloody Morning Scout,” and the survivors fled back to Johnson’s camp, causing panic.

Dieskau led his men to the camp and launched an attack. Johnson was wounded, and Colonel Phineas Lyman of Connecticut assumed command. Lyman inspired the troops to repel repeated French assaults.

• Dieskau was mortally wounded, and his men were running low on ammunition when the order to withdraw was given.
• The French retreated and abandoned their equipment and the wounded Dieskau.
• The British pursued the French. 

Meanwhile, British troops stationed at Fort Lyman had mobilized and made their way toward the battle. They came across 300 retreating French and Indians who had stopped to rest near a pond. The British ambushed them, and most were killed. Their bodies were thrown into the pond, which is known as “Bloody Pond.”

• The victory at Lake George allowed the British to retain control of the Hudson River Valley.
• Johnson ended his campaign by building Fort William Henry near Lake George.
• Fort St. Frederic remained under French control, and they built a new fort at Ticonderoga, which they called Fort Carillon.

British Success in Nova Scotia

In 1755, Britain achieved its clearest victory in Nova Scotia. Colonel Robert Monckton commanded 2,000 New Englanders and 300 British regulars.

• On June 16, 1755, Monckton captured Fort Beausejour on the Chignecto peninsula.
• On June 17, 1755, Monckton captured Fort Gaspereau.
• The British took about 1,000 French prisoners during the campaign.

Monckton’s forces deported about 6,000 of the 16,000 Acadians living in Nova Scotia. The deported Acadians had refused to swear allegiance to Britain.

• After 1755, Nova Scotia never again saw major battles.
• Indian and Canadian raiders continued to harass the colony.
• Britain kept large numbers of regulars, provincials, and rangers in Nova Scotia to defend against raids.

AHC Notes

• Monckton’s campaign in Nova Scotia is called the Northeast Coast Campaign. It began on June 2, 1755, and also contributed to the resolution of another conflict, Father Le Loutre’s War.
• The removal of the Acadians is also known as the Expulsion of the Acadians. It led to guerrilla warfare as the Acadians and their allies from the Wabanaki Confederacy fought to regain control of the region.

1756 — Indian Raids in the Backcountry

As hostilities escalated, settlers along the northern frontier and southern Backcountry suffered from Indian raids.

• By mid-1756, Indians had killed at least 376 civilians and captured another 276.
• Indian casualties were low and numbered fewer than 100.

Settlers in New England and New York had suffered through similar attacks during the earlier French and Indian Wars and other conflicts. New England and New York settlers held their ground against the attacks.

Following Braddock’s Defeat, the Delaware Lenape and Shawnee, who were allied with the French,  intensified their raids against colonial settlements in western Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Maryland.

• These frontier settlers had little experience with such warfare. 
• Many of them panicked, abandoned their homes, and fled eastward.

The British sought to persuade key Indian nations, including the Iroquois, Delaware Lenape, Shawnee, Cherokee, Creek, and Choctaw, to either join them or remain neutral. At this point, the British were entirely reliant on Indian support to maintain their war effort.

Britain Declares War and Loudoun Takes Command

After nearly two years of fighting in North America, King George II finally declared war against France on May 17, 1756. Meanwhile, a French fleet carried fresh troops to Canada.

• The Royal Navy failed to intercept the French fleet.
• It was carrying General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and two regiments of troops.

Britain countered by sending reinforcements to America and replacing William Shirley as commander-in-chief with John Campbell, the 4th Earl of Loudoun. He arrived in New York City on July 23, 1756.

• Loudoun found his army too weak and poorly supplied to launch an offensive.
• He focused on fixing the army’s administrative and logistical problems.

Due to the ongoing issues, Loudoun’s Army was only able to achieve two small victories in 1756.

1. On July 3, 1756, 400 bateaux men under Captain John Bradstreet were ambushed near Fort Oswego. After three hours of fighting, Bradstreet’s men fixed bayonets and drove off the French and Indian attackers.
2. On August 30, 1756, Colonel John Armstrong led Pennsylvania militiamen against the Delaware Lenape village of Kittanning. Armstrong’s men burned Kittanning, killed about 50 Delawares, and freed 11 white prisoners. The victory earned Armstrong the nickname “Hero of Kittanning.”

Montcalm’s Early Victories

While Loudoun remained passive, canceling two planned British operations against Louisbourg, Montcalm’s leadership led to significant victories and added Indian allies to the French cause. 

• French forces harassed British outposts and disrupted supply lines.
• On March 27, 1756, French troops captured Fort Bull and its garrison.

Montcalm led a large French Expedition in a raid on Fort Oswego in New York, on the southeast corner of Lake Ontario. British defenses included three forts: Oswego, Fort Ontario, and Fort George.

Montcalm led a force of nearly 3,000 French regulars, Canadian militia, and Indian warriors and laid siege to Fort Ontario, starting on August 11. 

• On the 13th, Colonel James Mercer ordered his men to abandon the fort, and they fled to Fort Oswego.
• The French occupied Fort Ontario, built artillery batteries, and opened fire on Fort Oswego on the morning of the 14th. 
• The British were able to return fire with their cannons. 

Meanwhile, French troops closed in on Fort Oswego. As they approached, Colonel Mercer was killed by a French shell. The British officers quickly gathered and decided to surrender. Lieutenant Colonel John Littlehales, who succeeded Mercer, raised the white flag over the broken walls of Fort Oswego.

The Canadians and Indians who were with Montcalm plundered the fort and beat Lieutenant Colonel Littlehales. Montcalm restored order and had his men burn any supplies they could not take with them, along with some boats the British were building. Montcalm returned to Montreal, taking prisoners with him.

January 21, 1757 — First Battle of the Snowshoes

In 1757, the British leaders sought to gather intelligence on French positions and the strength of their forces. The task was assigned to Captain Robert Rogers and his company, known as “Rogers’ Rangers.”

Rogers and his men, including John Stark, were on a scouting mission near Fort Carillon when they were ambushed by a French contingent that included Indian warriors. However, Rogers and his men were able to move through the snow more easily because of their snowshoes and held off their attackers. Rogers was injured twice in the skirmish.

Following this battle, the French interrogated British prisoners and learned the placement and strength of British troops throughout the region. This led Montcalm to his sights on Fort William Henry, which was under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Monro.

Webb Placed in Command of the New York Frontier

In March, Loudoun placed General Daniel Webb in command of British forces on the New York frontier, which included Fort Edward and Fort William Henry. 

• Webb had 2,000 troops from the Royal American Regiments under his command, and the provinces were expected to provide him with 5,000 militiamen. 
• Webb was based at Fort Edward, 14 miles from Fort William Henry.

Raid on Fort William Henry

In mid-March, Captain Francois Pierre Rigaud led a raid on Fort William Henry with 1,500 natives, French, and Canadians. This exposed British weaknesses and destroyed supplies, but Major William Eyre’s effective defense prevented the immediate capture of the fort.

The Pitt-Newcastle Ministry

On June 29, 1757, William Pitt and Thomas Pelham-Holles formed a new coalition government, known as the Pitt-Newcastle Ministry. 

• Pelham-Holles was the head of the ministry, or Prime Minister.
• Pitt was the Secretary of State. 

Pitt changed Britain’s strategy for the overall war effort, focusing on the war in North America instead of Europe. He also appointed capable field commanders and encouraged the use of Indian allies.

• Pitt asked the American Colonies to raise more troops for the war effort
• He promised them that Parliament would cover their expenses.
• Colonial legislatures responded enthusiastically.
• In 1758 and 1759, the colonies raised around 21,000 troops.

Siege of Fort William Henry

At Fort William Henry, Lieutenant Colonel George Monro had five regiments of British regulars. After Lieutenant Colonel John Young arrived with reinforcements, including 200 men from the 60th Royal American Regiment and 800 Massachusetts militiamen, Monro had roughly 2,300 men.

On August 3, General Montcalm arrived at Fort William Henry with around 6,000 French regulars, Canadian militia, and 2,000 Indian warriors. Meanwhile, a second French force, led by Chevalier de Levis, blocked the road that ran from Fort William Henry to Fort Edward. The next day, August 4, French artillery opened fire on Fort William Henry. 

• Monro sent a messenger to General Daniel Webb at Fort Edward, requesting his support. 
• However, Webb, feeling threatened by Levis and his forces, refused to send help. He sent a message back to Monro, suggesting he should surrender and negotiate the best terms possible. This message was intercepted by the French.
• On August 6, William Johnson arrived at Fort Edward with more than 1,500 troops. Johnson intended to go to Fort William Henry to support Monro, but Webb refused to allow him to leave.

The French bombardment of Fort William Henry lasted until August 7, when Montcalm sent a messenger to Monro under a flag of truce. The messenger delivered the instructions from Webb, which had been intercepted by the French. Afterward, the bombardment resumed.

On August 9, 1757, Monro raised a white flag and negotiated the surrender of the fort. Montcalm granted Monro and his forces full honors of war and safe passage to Fort Edward, which was 14 miles away. Monro’s troops also accepted parole, agreeing not to fight for a period of 18 months.

The British were also allowed to take their possessions with them. However, Montcalm did not consult with his Indian allies on this decision. The Indians expected to be able to ransack the fort and take whatever they wanted.

The British troops were relocated from the fort to a nearby camp. The Indians then entered the fort, plundered it, and killed some of the sick and wounded who had been left behind. Some of them also attacked the British troops in the camp. French troops restored order, but the Indians prepared to make another attack the next day.

Early the next morning, the column of British prisoners, which included women and children, prepared to march to Fort Edward. The Indians attacked again and continued as the defenseless column started to march. Montcalm and some of his officers restored order, but the Indians killed anywhere from 200 to 1,500 people and took prisoners in the massacre.

• Montcalm remained near Fort William Henry until August 18, and then returned to Fort Carillon.
• In the aftermath of the surrender, General Webb was recalled to England for failing to provide support to Monro.
• As far as the British and the Americans were concerned, the massacre was a violation of the terms of surrender and increased tensions with the French.
• When the Indians returned to their villages, they carried smallpox with them, which they had contracted from the sick and wounded at Fort William Henry. This led to a smallpox outbreak among tribes in the Ohio Valley and Great Plains.

Louisbourg Expedition

William Pitt instructed Lord Loudoun to organize an expedition to attack the French fortress at Louisbourg on present-day Cape Breton Island. Loudoun was to lead the ground forces, which would be transported to Louisbourg by a fleet of ships commanded by Admiral Francis Holburne, who would also engage any French ships that came to the defense of the fort.

The French became aware of the British plan months in advance and made preparations. Two squadrons of ships sailed to Louisbourg to reinforce the ships that were already there. These squadrons were under the command of Dubois de La Motte and Joseph de Bauffremont. 

The British were aware of the French naval reinforcements. However, Holburne’s fleet was delayed by bad weather and did not sail for Louisbourg until August. 

• The British fleet arrived in mid-August.
• The weather was rough, and kept the British from landing the ground forces.
• Loudoun canceled the attack in early August.
• On September 24, the British fleet was scattered by strong winds.

The fleet returned to New York, when it was too late to launch another campaign in 1757. Loudoun placed his soldiers in winter quarters. Pitt lost confidence in Loudoun and dismissed him in December 1757.

1758 — Abercromby Takes Command

General James Abercromby became commander-in-chief in March 1758. For the first time since 1755, Britain had the manpower and supplies to engage in a major conflict with the French.

• Abercromby commanded 42,000 British and provincial troops.
• Montcalm commanded fewer than 7,000 regulars, about 12,000 militia, and possibly 2,000 Indians.

British Expeditions

Pitt targeted the French forts on Lake Champlain, Louisbourg, and Fort Duquesne, and expeditions were organized.

• Abercromby intended to capture Fort Carillon and Fort St. Frederic on Lake Champlain.
• General Jeffery Amherst led the amphibious force to attack Louisbourg, which would eliminate the French Navy’s main base on the St. Lawrence River.
• Brigadier General John Forbes was assigned to march across the Appalachian Mountains and attack Fort Duquesne.

Abercromby’s Defeat at Fort Carillon

General Abercromby launched an armada of 800 bateaux (flat-bottom boats) and 90 whaleboats with 15,000 troops against the French. Fort Carillon was defended by about 3,500 men under Montcalm’s command.

• On July 7, 1758, the British attacked, overwhelmed the outer defenses, and inflicted heavy casualties.
• Montcalm responded by placing his infantry behind a moat-and-log barrier, where they were protected by the fort’s artillery.

Abercromby’s engineers told him the French defenses were weak. However, fearing French reinforcements were on the way, he did not use artillery to break the defenses.

• On July 8, he ordered repeated frontal assaults by his regulars.
• The regulars faced heavy fire before a ten-foot barrier.
• The attacks cost the British more than 1,600 casualties.
• Abercromby withdrew to Fort William Henry that night.

Bradstreet’s Victory at Fort Frontenac

After the defeat at Fort Carillon, Abercromby approved a plan to attack Fort Frontenac that was proposed by Lieutenant Colonel John Bradstreet.

• Fort Frontenac, on Lake Ontario’s northern shore, was Canada’s main depot for goods that were used to trade with Indians.

On August 14, 1758, Bradstreet led 3,700 provincials and 150 regulars into the wilderness. They traveled 430 miles, including 84 miles of portages, in 11 days.

• Bradstreet arrived at Fort Frontenac on August 25 and captured it two days later..
• The British took 110 prisoners, 76 cannon, and nine warships.
• The loss cut French supply lines to the Ohio Valley.
• The French also lost £70,000 worth of trade goods meant for their Indian allies.

Amherst’s Louisbourg Expedition

General Jeffery Amherst sailed from Halifax to Louisbourg with 14,200 regulars. The Royal Navy blocked French warships and supply convoys. The French were unable to challenge Amherst at sea or prepare for a long siege.

• On June 8, 1758, Brigadier General James Wolfe’s troops tried to land at Gabarus Bay.
• They came under heavy artillery fire, and Wolfe nearly abandoned the operation.
• A British officer spotted an undefended rocky cove where the troops disembarked.
• Many British soldiers drowned while trying to land.
• Wolfe secured the beachhead and stormed the French artillery batteries.
• The French retreated into the walls of Louisbourg.

The British laid siege to Louisbourg for six weeks. British artillery steadily bombarded the fortress, while Amherst extended his siege lines.

• On July 26, 1758, Governor Augustin Boschenry de Drucour surrendered Louisbourg.
• France lost 3,000 soldiers in the surrender, along with 2,600 sailors and marines.
• Five French ships of the line, carrying 340 guns, were captured.
• The capture of Louisbourg gave the British Navy control of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

Forbes Captures Fort Duquesne

General John Forbes led the final British offensive of 1758 against Fort Duquesne. The campaign was slowed by the need to cut a road through the mountains and the need to protect a 200-mile supply line through hostile territory.

• On September 11, Major James Grant led a scouting mission near Fort Duquesne.
• On September 14, the French attacked him and killed or captured 270 Highlanders and provincials.

On October 12, the French and Indians attacked Fort Ligonier, 40 miles from Fort Duquesne.

• The garrison held, but lost all its cattle and packhorses.
• Heavy autumn rains destroyed Forbes’ road and halted operations.
• The campaign stalled as winter approached.

By mid-November 1758, Forbes believed he could not advance beyond Fort Ligonier. However, a captured French soldier revealed that Fort Duquesne’s garrison was unprepared to withstand a siege.

• Forbes was ill but chose to lead 2,500 men for nine days across the last mountain ridges.
• On November 24, the French garrison destroyed Fort Duquesne and retreated.
• Forbes entered the ruins on November 25.
• The British started building Fort Pitt at the Forks of the Ohio before the year’s end.

1758 — British Command Changes and New Strategy

By 1758, the war was turning in favor of Britain. To keep momentum, Pitt promoted the officers who led the Siege of Louisbourg.

• Pitt appointed Jeffery Amherst as commander-in-chief and instructed him to drive the French from northern New York.
• Amherst was also tasked with capturing Montreal and, if possible, Quebec.
• James Wolfe, Amherst’s subordinate at Louisbourg, was given command of the expedition against Quebec.
• Wolfe’s mission was to invade Canada via the St. Lawrence Valley and besiege Quebec.

The Anglo-Cherokee War Begins in the South

Cherokees living in the Southeast were initially allied with the British during the war. They invited the British to build Fort Prince George in South Carolina and Fort Loudoun in Tennessee. However, tension developed between them and the British over harsh treatment during the Forbes Expedition and at Fort Prince George.

• Following the Forbes Expedition, a party of Cherokee warriors was returning to their villages in South Carolina when they were attacked by Virginians.
• French agents encouraged a Cherokee faction to retaliate in 1758.
• In April 1759, the Cherokee started raiding South Carolina settlements in the Backcountry.
• By early July, Cherokee raids had killed 23 settlers.

South Carolina’s Governor, William Henry Lyttelton, countered by taking Cherokee leaders hostage at Fort Prince George..

• Cherokee retaliation led to the execution of hostages, escalating the violence.
• Lyttleton and Cherokee leaders agreed to a peace treaty on December 22.

The British Capture Fort Niagara

Amherst organized an expedition under Brigadier General John Prideaux to retake Oswego and then capture Fort Niagara.

• Prideaux commanded 2,200 regulars and 3,500 provincials.
• By July 7, his army had Fort Niagara under siege.
• About 2,000 French and Indians advanced to relieve the fort.

Prideaux was killed on the front lines during the siege, and command of the British forces fell to William Johnson.

• On July 24, British forces defeated a French relief column.
• On July 25, Fort Niagara’s 600 defenders surrendered.
• The French, fearing further British attacks, burned and abandoned Fort Toronto.

Amherst Takes Carillon and St. Frederic

Amherst left his base on Lake George around July 21, 1759, and marched toward Fort Carillon and Fort St. Frederic.

• The British drove back French skirmishers.
• On July 26, the French blew up Fort Carillon before abandoning it.
• Amherst occupied the ruins of the fort, which was renamed “Fort Ticonderoga.”
• On August 4, Amherst found Fort St. Frederic had also been destroyed.
• Amherst built Fort Crown Point on the remains of Fort St. Frederic.
• The British advance stalled, and winter made further movement toward Canada impossible.

Rogers’ St. Francis Raid

Meanwhile, Amherst sent 200 rangers under Major Robert Rogers to raid the Abenaki village of St. Francis. Rogers and his men attacked on October 6, 1759, and burned the village.

Wolfe’s Quebec Campaign

On June 27, 1759, James Wolfe landed east of Quebec with roughly 9,000 troops. Montcalm kept his forces within the walls of the city, rather than marching out to engage the British.

• British probes against French defenses cost them many lives.
• Canadian partisans harassed Wolfe’s forces and reduced his numbers.

Wolfe retaliated by sending light infantry and rangers to destroy hundreds of farms. However, this only increased attacks from the Canadians. By the fall, Wolfe’s army had lost 700 men.

• With winter coming, Wolfe needed to draw Montcalm out of the city and into battle. 
• Otherwise, the St. Lawrence River would be frozen, and the British ships would be trapped.

Wolfe learned of an unguarded path up steep cliffs at Anse au Foulon that led to the city. The path was west of Montcalm’s batteries. Wolfe believed that if the army could scale the cliffs, they could force the French into battle. Although some of his officers disagreed with the plan, Wolfe moved ahead.

• On the night of September 12, 1759, Wolfe’s men executed the covert landing operation.
• They scaled the steep cliffs at Anse au Foulon and overpowered the few French sentinels stationed there.

By dawn on September 13, 4,500 British troops reached the Plains of Abraham, where Wolfe challenged Quebec’s garrison to battle.

• Montcalm attacked without waiting for reinforcements.
• Both armies were nearly equal in size.
• The British lines held, and the French were driven into the city.

Both Wolfe and Montcalm were mortally wounded during the battle. Wolfe died on the battlefield. However, British forces won and took control of Quebec City, which formally surrendered on September 18.

1760 — Final Operations at Quebec

General James Murray took command at Quebec, replacing Wolfe. Over the harsh winter, British forces suffered from malnutrition and disease.

• During the winter of 1759–1760, 1,000 British soldiers died in Quebec.
• By spring 1760, only 4,000 troops were fit for duty.

Governor Pierre de Rigaud de Vaudreuil gathered French forces at Montreal. In the spring of 1760, he ordered François-Gaston de Lévis to retake Quebec with 7,000 men.

• Lévis’ army included eight regiments of regulars.
• On April 28, 1760, Lévis defeated British troops at Sillery.
• Afterward, Lévis laid siege to Quebec.
• Enemy fire and disease reduced the British garrison to 2,500 men fit for duty.
• Murray held out until May 16, when British naval forces arrived and broke the siege.

The Anglo-Cherokee War Resumes

In South Carolina, the Cherokee broke the peace treaty they had made with Governor William Henry Lyttleton.

• In February 1760, the Cherokees killed the commander of Fort Prince George.
• The Cherokees then attacked Fort Prince George, initiating a siege.
• The garrison retaliated by massacring Cherokee hostages.
• Cherokee raiding parties renewed attacks on the South Carolina frontier.
• The Cherokees also laid siege to Fort Loudoun in Tennessee.

Fall of Montreal

Ending the Siege of Quebec allowed Amherst to launch a three-pronged offensive in 1760.

1. On July 14, 1760, General James Murray marched 2,500 troops up the St. Lawrence River toward Montreal.
2. Amherst left Oswego on August 10 with 10,000 troops and captured Fort Levis on August 25.
3. Brigadier General William Haviland marched north from Crown Point with 2,500 men. On September 1, 1760, Haviland captured Chambly.

The three British armies converged at Montreal, where French forces were concentrated. On September 8, Governor Pierre de Rigaud de Vaudreuil surrendered Montreal. Soon after, the remaining French garrisons in Canada surrendered, marking the completion of the British Conquest of Canada.

Montgomery’s Failed Expedition

General Amherst sent an expedition under Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Montgomery to aid Fort Loudoun. Montgomery’s force included regulars and provincial troops.

• Montgomery marched westward and burned Cherokee towns in April and May.
• The British advanced to the Little Tennessee River and were near the Cherokee town of Etchoe when the Cherokee attacked them.
• The battle resulted in approximately 100 British casualties.
• Montgomery decided to abandon the mission.

The garrison at Fort Loudoun surrendered to the Cherokee on August 7, 1760.

• The terms of surrender promised the garrison that it would be safely taken eastward.
• On August 10, 1760, Cherokees attacked the retreating garrison and retaliated for the massacre that had taken place at Fort Prince George.
• They killed one member of the Fort Loudoun garrison for every Cherokee that had been killed at Fort Prince George.
• The Cherokee took the remaining men, about 110, and held them for ransom.

Amherst’s Message to the French and Indians on the Frontier

After Montreal fell to the British, General Jeffery Amherst sought to remove the remaining French forces from forts on the frontier.

• He sent Major Robert Rogers and his Rangers to visit the French forts.
• Rogers was to receive their surrender and raise the British flag.

Meanwhile, George Croghan was sent to meet with the Indians to let them know the British had won the territory and that the Indians were now considered British subjects. 

• He also spread the message from Amherst, which promised the British would resume trade with them and not take their land. 
• The British created additional goodwill with the Indians by supplying them with ammunition for their weapons.

George III Becomes King

George William Frederick, the grandson of King George II, was born in 1738. His parents were Frederick, the Prince of Wales, and Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha.

• The Prince of Wales died before King George III.
• This moved George up in the line of succession.
• King George II died on October 25, 1760.
• George was crowned King George III on October 25, 1760.

1761 — End of the Anglo-Cherokee War

South Carolina’s Acting Governor, William Bull, opened negotiations with the Cherokee, but also planned to send another expedition to attack their towns. In June 1761, Lieutenant Colonel James Grant led 2,500 troops into the Backcountry.

• Following the surrender of Canada, French agents failed to provide ammunition, weakening Cherokee resistance.
• On June 10, Grant’s men fought through a Cherokee ambush near Etchoe.
• The British burned 15 Cherokee towns in the Smoky Mountains.

Grant’s destructive campaign forced the Cherokees to seek peace. The Treaty of Charleston was signed on September 23, 1761. 

The Anglo-Cherokee War devastated the Cherokee. Contemporary historian James Adair recorded that the Cherokee population fell to roughly 6,900 after the war.

Frustration of the Northern Indians

By the Spring of 1761, the Indians in the North were frustrated with the British. When the trading season opened, the Indians had plenty of furs to trade, but the British brought products the Indians were not interested in, and also limited the amount of rum they could trade for. The Indians also felt the prices the British were charging were too high and unfair. 

William Johnson attempted to alleviate the situation by providing Amherst with a list of items the Indians wanted to trade for, and he sought to negotiate better prices, especially for the Indians who lived among the tribes in the vicinity of Fort Detroit.

Amherst assured Johnson that he would do his best to maintain peace with the Indians. However, Amherst felt the British were giving too much and were essentially bribing them, and decided to alter trade agreements.

• Amherst restricted the trade of rum and gunpowder with the Indians.
• He required all trade to be conducted at British forts, which required the Indians to travel to the forts.

By July, a group of Senecas, carrying a war belt, visited some of the Eastern tribes. They asked these tribes to join them in declaring war on the British, and they proposed simultaneous attacks on British forts.

• William Johnson met with the Western tribes in September and brokered a peace agreement.
• He urged the commanders of the British forts to trade fairly with the Indians.
• Around this time, the Ottawa chief, Pontiac, started to speak out against the British.

The Bourbon Family Compact

As the Cherokee War drew to a close, France and Spain formed a new alliance. On August 15, 1761, the two nations signed a secret pact known as the Bourbon Family Compact. The compact required Spain to join the war against Britain by May 1, unless a peace agreement was reached between Britain and France.

1762 — Britain Goes to War with Spain

Britain declared war on Spain on January 4, 1762, and British officials had General Amherst send 6,000 regulars and 2,000 provincials to the Caribbean. These troops joined 6,600 men under the command of George Keppel, the 3rd Duke of Albemarle, for an invasion of Cuba.

• British forces landed east of Havana on June 7.
• The landing was protected by British ships, which fired on Spanish artillery batteries that were located on the shore.

On June 8, 8,000 Spanish troops, led by cavalry, attacked from the heights above the beachhead. The British repulsed the attack and inflicted heavy losses on the Spanish.

• On June 10, the British started a siege of El Morro Castle, Havana’s main citadel.
• The siege was lengthy and difficult.
• Spanish infantry twice sallied out of El Morro and attacked Keppel’s forces.

The Siege of Havana was costly to British forces, who suffered from tropical diseases. By July 17, approximately 40% of the surviving troops were hospitalized. 

Amherst sent more reinforcements, which allowed Keppel to continue the siege.

• On July 30, British forces breached a wall at El Morro Castle. They stormed through the wall and captured the castle.
• By August 11, all Spanish defenses around Havana were defeated
• Havana surrendered on August 13.

The fall of Havana was considered as significant as the captures of Louisbourg and Quebec in Canada. However, the victory was costly, as only about half of the British troops, including Americans, survived to return home.

The Battle for St. John’s

In mid-1762, France launched its final campaign of the war as French forces sought to capture Newfoundland’s fisheries. French officials intended to use them as leverage in peace negotiations with the British.

• Four French ships of the line transported 800 troops across the Atlantic from Brest.
• The fleet successfully evaded the British Navy and arrived in Newfoundland on June 24.
• The colony was defended by 240 infantry and 70 artillerymen.
• On June 27, the French forced the British garrison at St. John’s to surrender.

General Jeffery Amherst ordered his brother, Lieutenant Colonel William Amherst, to retake Newfoundland.

• William Amherst organized an expedition of 900 regulars and 500 provincials.
• He secured 10 transports and sailed from Nova Scotia.
• Amherst landed in Newfoundland on September 12.

By this time, the French had recalled their naval forces to Europe, leaving St. John’s without naval support.

• The French garrison was trapped.
• After minor skirmishes, the French surrendered.
• Amherst reclaimed St. John’s for the British on September 18.

In the aftermath of this British victory, neither France nor Spain was able to continue the conflict. Peace negotiations between Britain, France, and Spain followed.

Treaty of Fontainebleau

On November 13, 1762, France and Spain signed a secret agreement, known as the Treaty of Fontainebleau. In this treaty, France ceded New Orleans and all land west of the Mississippi River (the Louisiana Territory) to Spain.

• Spain returned New Orleans and the Louisiana territory to France in 1800, in another secret agreement, the Treaty of San Ildefonso.
• The United States eventually secured ownership of the territory in 1803, as part of the Louisiana Purchase.

Northern Indians Prepare for War

As the British escalated their control over trade with the Indians, the French worked to convince the Indians to attack British forts.

• On September 28, 1762, an Indian from the Detroit area visited George Croghan in Pennsylvania and said he had heard a secret council had taken place at an Ottawa village. 
• At the council, two Frenchmen addressed leaders from the Ottawa, Chippewa, Huron, Potawatomi, and other tribes. 
• He told Croghan he did not know what the French said, but messengers had been sent to other tribes. 
• Croghan heard similar rumors from some Iroquois men he was acquainted with. He sent letters to Amherst and Johnson, telling them what he had heard.

1763 — Treaty of Paris

The Treaty of Paris was negotiated and signed in November 1763, taking effect on February 10, 1763. This officially brought the French and Indian War to an end and established Britain as the dominant power in North America.

• Britain returned Cuba to Spain.
• Spain ceded East Florida and West Florida to Britain.
• Britain returned Guadeloupe and Martinique to France.
• France surrendered Canada and the territory east of the Mississippi River to Britain.
• France retained the islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, located near Newfoundland.
• France retained fishing rights on the Grand Banks.

Aftermath

In the Spring of 1763, Indian war belts were circulating throughout the region referred to as the Pays d’en Haut (the upper country). The region was located from the west of Lake Michigan to the east of Lake Ontario, near the Appalachian Mountains. It started as far north as the tip of Michigan and stretched south past Fort Pitt into the Illinois Country and the Ohio Country.

• In the West, Pontiac said he received war belts from the French. 
• In the East, the Seneca sent a belt, which was probably done by their chief, Kyashuta.

On May 9, 1763, Pontiac led 300 warriors in an attack on Fort Detroit, starting Pontiac’s Rebellion. Similar attacks took place throughout the Ohio Country and western Pennsylvania during the spring and summer of 1763. 

Although this war was short, it was destructive and led to violent attacks against Indians, including the Conestoga Massacre in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.

To separate colonists from the Indians, King George III issued the Proclamation of 1763 in October. It prohibited Americans from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains and reserved the Ohio Country for the Indians, to be used as hunting grounds.

Soon after, British officials decided it was necessary to maintain a presence of 10,000 British troops in the American Colonies. The stated purpose was to defend the expanded western frontier from the Indians, French, and Spanish. However, many Americans believed the army’s true purpose was to keep them in check and enforce British laws, such as the Navigation Acts.

Within a few months, the British government ended Salutary Neglect, started enforcing the Navigation Acts, and passed the Sugar Act (1764) and the Stamp Act (1765). The latter levied taxes on Americans without their consent, starting the policy known as “Taxation Without Representation.”

AP US History Alignment

The French and Indian War is part of the following units, topics, and chapters in the AP US History curriculum:

Unit 2: 1607–1754

• 2.5 — Interactions Between American Indians and Europeans

Unit 3: 1754–1800

• 3.2 — The Seven Years’ War (The French and Indian War)

Notes

• Settling the Northern Colonies (1619–1700)
• The Duel for North America (1608–1763)
• America Secedes from the Empire (1775–1783)

Video