French Revolution

Essential Facts

• The French Revolution (1789–1799) started during America’s New Nation Era (1783–1815).
• It was inspired by the Enlightenment and the American Revolution.
• The French Revolution started with the Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789).
• Americans supported the Revolution early, until the outbreak of violence known as the Reign of Terror under the rule of the Jacobins.
• In 1792, the French Revolutionary Wars started, as France fought to spread its Revolutionary Ideals throughout Europe.
• Britain declared war on France (1793), and the Jacobins asked the U.S. for support, leading to the Citizen Genêt Affair (1793–1794).
• President George Washington refused to aid France and issued his Proclamation of Neutrality (1793), which was followed by the Neutrality Act (1794).
• American support for the Revolution decreased further when the Directory seized control of France.
• The Directory agitated the United States with the XYZ Affair and the Quasi-War.
• Napoleon Bonaparte and the Consulate took control of France and restored peace with the U.S. with the Convention of 1800.
• Napoleon sold the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. in the Louisiana Purchase (1803).
• The Napoleonic Wars in Europe involved economic warfare that affected the U.S. and contributed to the War of 1812.
• The Treaty of Ghent (1814) ended the War of 1812.
• Napoleon expanded the French Empire until he was exiled in 1814.
• He briefly returned to power in the spring of 1815.
• Napoleon was defeated by the Seventh Coalition at the Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815).

Significance

The French Revolution is important to American History because it shaped the course of American foreign policy and contributed to the development of political parties. The Revolution created challenges for the United States as it tried to remain neutral in foreign affairs. However, French agitation led to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts and the publication of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. These Resolutions established the concept of Nullification, which laid the groundwork for Secession and the American Civil War (1861–1865).

The French Revolution and the United States

The French Revolution and the Age of Napoleon are important events in world history that affected the growth and development of the United States during the Federalist Era, the Age of Jefferson, and the War of 1812.

• King Louis XVI faced financial issues partly due to supporting the United States during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783).
• In the spring of 1789, he called the Estates General to address the nation’s financial needs.
• The Estates General wanted reforms, including becoming a national assembly, controlling taxation, and writing a new French Constitution.
• The King’s opposition to these reforms led to a popular revolt.
• The Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789) started the French Revolution.
• The National Assembly abolished feudal privileges on August 4, 1789.
• On August 26, 1789, the Declaration of the Rights of Man was issued.
• This document claimed “natural rights” such as liberty, property, and security, as well as freedom of the press, opinion, and religion.
• It stated that sovereignty belonged to the nation, not the King.

The Evolution of American Support for the French Revolution

• The French Revolution was inspired by the Enlightenment and the American Revolution.
• At first, Americans supported the Revolution because of shared Revolutionary Ideals.
• The Marquis de Lafayette, who served under George Washington during the American Revolutionary War, was a leader in the French Revolution and helped increase American support.
• King Louis XVI was convicted of treason and executed on January 21, 1793.
• Great Britain declared war on the French Republic in February 1793.
• A faction known as the Jacobins took control of France in June 1793, ushering in the violent “Reign of Terror.”
• The Reign of Terror lasted from roughly September 1793 to July 1794, resulting in the deaths 40,000 deaths of Royalists and opponents of the Jacobins.

France Calls for Aid from the United States

• The war between Great Britain and the United States created a diplomatic crisis for the United States.
• France called on the U.S. for aid due to the treaties the two nations signed in 1778, establishing the Franco-American Alliance.

The Citizen Genêt Affair and the French Neutrality Crisis

Under the provisions of the 1783 Franco-American Alliance, the French appealed to the United States for support and sent Edmond Charles Genêt to America to negotiate. However, instead of going to Philadephia to meet with President George Washington, he started by gathering American citizens to volunteer to help France fight Britain and Spain. 

Washington responded by issuing the Proclamation of Neutrality, which Genêt ignored. Soon after, Genêt defied Washington and sent a ship — a Privateer — out of Philadelphia to attack British ships. This could have led Britain to declare war on the United States. 

Washington and his cabinet responded by asking the French Government to recall Genêt and send a new Ambassador. The French agreed and sent a replacement — but also accused Genêt of treason. 

Genêt asked for political asylum in America, which was granted, and he spent the rest of his life living in New York. The affair deepened the divide between political parties in the United States but also led the government to define its policy regarding neutrality and the passage of the Neutrality Act of 1794.

Formation of Political Parties in the United States

Disagreements between Federalists and Anti-Federalists over the Constitution carried to the debate on foreign policy and contributed to the development of America’s first political parties, the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.

The Federalists were led by Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, while the Democratic-Republicans were led by Thomas Jefferson, the Secretary of State.

• Federalists leaned toward retaining ties with Great Britain and were cautious toward France due to the increasing violence of the French Revolution. Federalists also leaned toward an industrialized nation, so foreign trade was vital to their vision.
• Democratic-Republicans favored ties with France in support of the French Revolution. They favored an agricultural society and leaned toward Westward Expansion as the path for growing the new nation’s economy.

The Directory Seizes Control of France

• The Jacobins and Maximilian Robespierre were overthrown in July 1794 in the “Thermidorian Reaction.”
• This led to the Directory seizing control of France from 1795 to 1799, restoring order.
• During the Directory’s rule, France engaged in wars against Great Britain and several European powers and the Quasi-War with the United States.

American Support for the French Revolution Declines

• American excitement for the French Revolution waned when the Directory took control of France, but did not embrace the Republican ideals of the Revolution.
• Napoleon’s rise to power further diminished U.S. support for the Revolution.
• The power struggles in Europe continued to affect American politics, public opinion, and foreign policy.

Jay’s Treaty Between the United States and Britain

• Due to the war with France, Great Britain needed sailors to fill the crews for its warships.
• Britain challenged American neutrality by enforcing the Rule of 1756, seizing American ships, and impressing sailors into service on British warships.
• In response, Washington sent John Jay to negotiate with Great Britain.
• Jay’s Treaty (1795) resolved some issues but left several others unsettled.
• The treaty granted the British trading rights with the United States and provided security to American merchant ships.
• France was outraged over Jay’s Treaty.

The Impact of Relations with France on American Politics

The United States maintained its neutral status in the war between Britain and France. However, France was upset over Jay’s Treaty and started harassing and seizing American ships. This led to a series of events that significantly impacted America’s growth and development during the New Nation Era (1783–1815).

• President John Adams prepared for war by building up the military, reestablishing the U.S. Navy, and sending diplomats to negotiate with French officials.
• The French tried to bribe the Americans, creating the diplomatic scandal known as the XYZ Affair. Tensions over this led to the Quasi-War between the U.S. and France.
• The Quasi-War increased anti-French sentiment in the United States, leading to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts by Congress, which was controlled by the Federalist Party.
• Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, the leaders of the Democratic-Republican, responded to the Alien and Sedition Acts with the Virginia and Kentucky Resolves.
• The Virginia and Kentucky Resolves established the concept of Nullification, which was a theory that a State could “nullify” a Federal law it believed was unconstitutional.
• In 1832, South Carolina used Nullification to threaten Secession from the Union over the Tariff of 1832 in the Nullification Crisis.

The Rise of Napoleon

• A faction led by Napoleon Bonaparte, known as the Consulate, seized control from the Directory in 1799, effectively ending the French Revolution.
• Napoleon led France as the First Consul.
• In 1800, France and the United States agreed to the Convention of 1800, which restored diplomatic and economic ties.
• Napoleon intended to reestablish French dominance in North America and reacquired the Louisiana Territory from Spain in 1800 (Treaty of San Ildefonso). 
• The plan was disrupted when French forces failed to secure control of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) in 1803.
• Napoleon abandoned the plan and agreed to sell the Louisiana Territory to the U.S., doubling its size.
• Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of France in 1804.

Napoleon’s Continental System

• France’s war with Great Britain continued.
• While Napoleon’s army dominated the Continent, the British Navy dominated the seas.
• Britain used its Navy to set up the Fox Blockade along the European coast and enforce the Rule of 1756, which restricted trade between neutral nations like the United States and France.
• Napoleon responded with his own economic sanctions, which are known as the “Continental System.” It was a series of decrees that imposed tariffs, embargoes, and trade restrictions on Britain.

Economic Warfare Contributes to the War of 1812

• As a young nation, the United States needed to maintain its neutral status, but it also needed to trade with Great Britain and France.
• Britain eased enforcement of the Rule of 1856 with the Polly Decision (1800), but it was reversed with the Essex Decision (1805).
• This drew the U.S. into economic warfare against Britain and France. 
• From 1806 to 1810, the U.S. issued the Non-Importation Act (1806), the Embargo Act (1807), the Non-Intercourse Act (1809), and Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810) to protect its trade. However, the strategy, initiated by President Thomas Jefferson and continued by President James Madison, failed.
• In 1810, Napoleon sent the Cadore Letter to the U.S., suggesting he would ease restrictions on trade if the U.S. stopped trading with Britain.
• President James Madison reinstituted non-importation with Britain in November. However, France continued to harass American ships.
• Madison’s Federalist opponents criticized him for trusting Napoleon.

The War of 1812

• In 1811, a pro-war, pro-expansion faction in Congress, known as the “War Hawks,” pushed President Madison to declare war on Great Britain.
• Although the United States was unprepared for a major war against one of the most powerful nations in the world, Madison relented. On June 1, 1812, he delivered his War Message to Congress.
• On June 18, citing violations of American neutrality, impressment of sailors, and incitement of attacks by Native American Indians on the Western Frontier, Congress declared war on Britain, initiating the War of 1812.
• The Treaty of Ghent (1814) restored peace, although the last major battle of the war was fought at New Orleans in January 1815.

The Fall of Napoleon

• Napoleon expanded his rule over much of Europe until he was exiled in 1814 but briefly returned to power in the spring of 1815.
• Napoleon was defeated by the Seventh Coalition at the Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815), ending the Napoleonic Wars.

French Revolution APUSH

The French Revolution is part of the following units and chapters in the AP US History curriculum:

Unit 3: 1754–1800

• 3.6 — The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals 

Unit 4: 1800–1848

• Topic 4.2 — The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson 
• Topic 4.4 — America on the World Stage

American Pageant Notes

• Chapter 10 — Launching the New Ship of State (1789–1800)
• Chapter 11 — Triumphs and Travails of the Jeffersonian Republic (1800–1812)
• Chapter 12 — The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism (1812–1824)

Vocabulary

The following terms and definitions provide more information and context for students studying the French Revolution.

Consulate — The Consulate was the French government from 1799 to 1804, following the overthrow of the Directory. It was established with three consuls, but Napoleon Bonaparte, as First Consul, held most of the power. The Consulate marked the end of the French Revolution and the beginning of Napoleon’s rule. It is known for centralizing power, implementing reforms, and stabilizing France. In 1804, Napoleon declared himself Emperor, ending the Consulate and beginning the First French Empire.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen — The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was adopted by the French National Assembly in August 1789 during the early stages of the French Revolution. It proclaimed that all men are born free and equal in rights, including the rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. It also emphasized the principles of Popular Sovereignty, Freedom of Speech, and equality before the law. Inspired by the Enlightenment and the American Revolution, it was a direct challenge to the monarchy and aristocratic privileges.

Directory — The Directory was the governing body of France from 1795 to 1799, following the fall of the Jacobins and the Reign of Terror. It was composed of five directors who collectively held executive power. The Directory sought to stabilize France after the chaos of the Reign of Terror, but it was plagued by corruption and inefficiency. It ultimately lost public support and was overthrown in 1799 by Napoleon Bonaparte in a coup, leading to the establishment of the Consulate.

Estates-General — The Estates-General was a legislative assembly in pre-revolutionary France that represented the three traditional estates of French society: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the commoners (Third Estate). It was convened by the monarch when needed, typically to address financial or political crises. In 1789, King Louis XVI called the Estates-General for the first time in over 170 years to address France’s financial crisis. The Third Estate, frustrated with its lack of power, broke away to form the National Assembly, sparking the French Revolution. The Estates-General’s failure to address the demands of the Third Estate marked the beginning of the revolutionary movement.

First French Empire – The First French Empire, also known as the Napoleonic Empire, was established in 1804 when Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself Emperor of the French. Under Napoleon, the empire expanded across much of Europe through military conquest, but his reign also saw significant legal and administrative reforms, including the Napoleonic Code. The empire lasted until 1815, when Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and exiled, leading to the restoration of the Bourbon Monarchy.

Fox Blockade — The Fox Blockade was a British naval blockade of the European coastline from the Elbe River to Brest. Napoleon responded to the Blockade with the Continental System. Americans were outraged because it added more restrictions on trade with France and European nations.

Jacobins — The Jacobins were a radical political group during the French Revolution, most notably associated with the Reign of Terror from 1793 to 1794. Led by figures like Maximilien Robespierre, the Jacobins advocated for the execution of King Louis XVI, the establishment of a republic, and drastic social and political changes to promote equality and liberty. Their rule was marked by the widespread use of the guillotine against perceived enemies of the revolution. The Jacobins lost power after Robespierre’s fall in 1794.

Haitian Revolution — The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) was a successful uprising of enslaved Africans in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) against French colonial rule. Led by figures like Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, and Henri Christophe, the Revolution resulted in the abolition of slavery and the establishment of Haiti as the first independent black republic in 1804. It was the only successful slave revolt in history and impacted the Abolition Movement in America. The Haitian Revolution also disrupted European control in the Caribbean and influenced movements for freedom and independence in the region.

King Louis XVI — King Louis XVI was the last King of France before the French Revolution, reigning from 1774 until he was deposed in 1792. His reign was marked by financial crises, political mismanagement, and growing unrest among the French population. Despite attempts to reform the French tax system and government, his indecisiveness and resistance to change contributed to the outbreak of the French Revolution. In 1789, he convened the Estates-General to address the country’s financial issues, but it led to the rise of the National Assembly and the Revolution. After France became a republic, Louis XVI was tried for treason, found guilty, and executed in January 1793.

Napoleonic Code — The Napoleonic Code, officially known as the Code Civil des Français, was a comprehensive legal code established by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1804. It standardized French civil law and became one of the most influential legal systems in history. The code emphasized principles such as equality before the law, the protection of private property, and the secular authority of the state. It abolished feudal privileges and set guidelines for contracts, property rights, and family law. The Napoleonic Code served as a model for legal systems in many countries, shaping modern civil law across Europe and beyond.

Napoleonic Wars — The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of conflicts between Napoleon Bonaparte’s French Empire and various coalitions of European nations, including Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia. These wars developed out of ideological conflicts following the French Revolution. Napoleon sought to expand French dominance across Europe through military campaigns, leading to widespread territorial changes and the spread of Revolutionary ideas. The wars ended with Napoleon’s defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, which marked the collapse of the French Empire and the restoration of monarchies across Europe.

Reign of Terror — The Reign of Terror was a period during the French Revolution, from September 1793 to July 1794, marked by mass executions and political repression. Led by the radical Jacobins under Maximilien Robespierre, the Revolutionary government sought to eliminate its political enemies. The Revolutionary Tribunal oversaw trials, and thousands of people, including King Louis XVI, Queen Marie Antoinette, and many ordinary citizens, were executed. The Reign of Terror ended with Robespierre’s own execution in July 1794.

Maximilien Robespierre — Maximilien Robespierre was a leading figure in the French Revolution and a key member of the radical Jacobin Club. He rose to prominence during the Reign of Terror (1793–1794), where he sought to defend the Revolution by purging France of its enemies through widespread executions by guillotine. As a member of the Committee of Public Safety, Robespierre enforced policies of political repression and supported Revolutionary ideals of equality and democracy. However, his extreme measures, often viewed as dictatorial, eventually led to his downfall. In July 1794, he was arrested and executed, ending the Reign of Terror.

Storming of the Bastille — The Storming of the Bastille occurred on July 14, 1789, when insurgents in Paris attacked the Bastille, a fortress and prison that symbolized royal tyranny. The storming was driven by the growing unrest over King Louis XVI’s refusal to address economic and political issues and the fear that he would suppress revolutionary efforts. The capture of the Bastille marked the start of the French Revolution, signaling the collapse of royal authority and the rise of popular resistance. The event is celebrated every year as “Bastille Day.”

Battle of Waterloo — The Battle of Waterloo, fought on June 18, 1815, was the decisive, final battle of the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon Bonaparte’s forces were defeated by a coalition of British, Dutch, and Prussian troops, led by the Duke of Wellington and General Blücher, near Waterloo in present-day Belgium. This defeat led to Napoleon’s abdication and exile to the island of Saint Helena, marking the end of his rule and the Napoleonic Wars. The term “Waterloo” has become synonymous with a final, crushing defeat.

French Revolution in AP US History

The French Revolution is part of the following units, topics, and chapters in the APUSH curriculum:

Unit 3: 1754–1800

• 3.6 — The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals
• 3.10 — Shaping the New Republic 

Unite 4: 1800–1848

• 4.4 — America on the World Stage

American Pageant Notes

• Chapter 10 — Launching the New Ship of State (1789–1800)
• Chapter 11 — Triumphs and Travails of the Jeffersonian Republic (1800–1812)