Georgia Colony — Early Settlement and History

Overview

The region known today as Georgia was originally occupied by various Native American Indian tribes. After Christopher Columbus’s First Voyage of Discovery (1492), Spain and Portugal agreed to a treaty that divided the Americas between the two nations, and Georgia was under Spanish control. 

Spanish explorers entered the region during the 1500s and established an outpost on St. Catherines Island in 1566. Spanish missionaries proceeded to set up missions along the coast, where they introduced Christianity to the Native American Indian tribes living in the region that the Spanish called “Guale.”

In 1663, England laid claim to the region. This led to a century of conflict between England and Spain for control of Georgia. Following the Yamasee War (1715–1717), British officials increasingly viewed the region south of the Savannah River as being vital to defending South Carolina from both Indian, French, and Spanish threats and looked to establish a “buffer colony” in the region.

This effort took shape starting in 1729, when James Oglethorpe led a parliamentary investigation into England’s prisons. Shocked by the conditions he found in debtors’ prisons, he promoted a colony where the “worthy poor” could rebuild their lives. A group of 21 trustees, including Oglethorpe, petitioned King George II, who granted them a charter in 1732 that established the colony of Georgia and placed it under their control. 

From the very beginning, the Trustees sought to use the colony to reform the settlers. They limited land ownership, placed restrictions on inheritance, prohibited alcohol consumption, and banned slavery. Over time, a group known as the “Malcontents” emerged that protested these policies, arguing they prevented Georgia’s economic growth.

Oglethorpe and 114 settlers sailed to South Carolina aboard the Anne and reached Yamacraw Bluff in February 1733. After receiving permission from the Yamacraw tribe and their leader, Tomochichi, they established Savannah according to the “Oglethorpe Plan.” Under this plan, they organized the town according to a grid system.

Although Georgia’s charter encouraged Freedom of Religion, Catholics were prohibited because British officials were afraid they would aid the Spanish. Jewish immigrants reached Savannah in 1733, and Lutheran Salzburgers (German Protestants) established Ebenezer in 1734 before relocating to New Ebenezer. In 1736, Scottish Highlanders established Darien. That same year, Oglethorpe also established Fort Frederica for defense and Augusta to be a center of trade with the Creeks, Cherokees, and Chickasaws. Spain responded by constructing their own forts, including Fort Mosé, just north of St. Augustine.

During this time, the Wesley brothers, John and Charles, arrived in the colony and provided religious instruction for children. They were followed by George Whitefield, a key figure in the first Great Awakening, who established Bethesda Orphan House in Savannah and used the colony as a base of operations for his evangelical mission.

By 1739, Britain and Spain were at war with each other. This conflict, the War of Jenkins’ Ear, led to hostilities between Georgia and Spanish Florida. Britain sent ships and soldiers to help defend Georgia. Oglethorpe led British forces and unsuccessfully attacked St. Augustine in 1740. Spain invaded St. Simons Island in 1742, but Oglethorpe defeated them at the Battle of Bloody Marsh. This forced the Spanish to retreat and preserved Georgia as a British colony.

Over the next decade, the Trustees struggled to maintain Georgia according to their original vision. They lifted land ownership restrictions in 1749 and ended the ban on slavery in 1750. In doing so, they allowed Georgia’s plantation economy to expand. Finally, in 1752, the Trustees turned the colony over to the Crown, ending the Trustee Period.

The Royal Period officially started in 1752, which provided Georgia with an appointed Governor, an elected assembly, and a court system. Under the royal government, enslaved African labor increased dramatically as Georgia expanded due to rice production, trade, and settlement.

Following the French and Indian War (1754–1763), Georgia gained territory, adopted the Headright System, and experienced population growth. Despite these advances, Georgia relied heavily on support from Parliament, especially in defending itself from Indian attacks. Because of this, Georgia was slow to join the Patriot Cause during the early years of the American Revolution. Over time, this changed, and Georgia fully supported the cause by joining the Continental Association and sending delegates to the Second Continental Congress.

Essential Facts

• Also Known As: Georgia has been called the Georgia Colony, Colony of Georgia, and the Province of Georgia.
• Region: The colonies are generally divided into three regions — New England Colonies, the Middle Colonies, and the Southern Colonies. Georgia was one of the Southern Colonies in Colonial America.
• Type: Because the charter was granted to the 21 Trustees, Georgia was established as a Proprietary Colony. It became a Royal Colony in 1752.
• First Settlement: The first permanent English settlement was Savannah.
• Purpose: Georgia was established to provide a buffer between South Carolina and Spanish Florida. It was also meant to be a place where the “Worthy Poor” from England could immigrate to for a chance at a new life, and it was meant to be part of the English Mercantile System.
• Part Of: British Colonies in North America.

Key Moments

• In 1663, King Charles II granted the Carolinas to the Lords Proprietors, extending England’s claim south toward St. Augustine. The territory of Georgia was included in this claim.
• Over time, English officials sought to establish a “buffer colony” between South Carolina and Spanish Florida to provide military protection for the Carolinas.
• A group of reformers, including James Oglethorpe, devised a plan to establish a colony for the “Worthy Poor” that would help reform them and give them a chance at a new life.
• The reformers, known as the “21 Trustees,” petitioned King George II and asked for land in the region south of South Carolina.
• King George II signed the charter for the new colony in April 1732, and it was officially sealed on June 9, 1732.
• The new colony was called “Georgia,” and was named after King George II.
• The first settlers, including Oglethorpe, arrived in February 1733. They established Savannah and formed an alliance with local Indians.
• Oglethorpe led the successful defense of Georgia against Spanish forces during the War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739–1748).
• The Trustees oversaw Georgia until 1752, when they relinquished control and turned the colony over to the Crown.
• John Reynolds, the first Royal Governor, arrived in 1754. He was followed by Henry Ellis in 1757 and James Wright in 1760.

Key Details

• Georgia was the last of the 13 Original Colonies to be established.
• Georgia relied heavily on financial support from Parliament. Over 20 years, the British government spent about £236,000 on Georgia.
• The Trustees initially banned slavery in Georgia, which led to criticism from the settlers. In 1750, the Trustees relented and agreed to allow it. This contributed to the development of Georgia’s plantation economy.
• San Miguel de Gualdape, a Spanish settlement, may have been on the Georgia coast. It was the site of the first African slave uprising in North America.
• The Horton House on Jekyll Island is believed to be the oldest building in Georgia, dating to 1743.
• The oldest church building is the Jerusalem Lutheran Church in Ebenezer. It was built in 1769.
• Oglethorpe was the only one of the 21 Trustees who spent any time in the colony.

History

Georgia was the last of the 13 Original Colonies established by Great Britain as part of the American Colonies. Like the other colonies, the region was dominated by Native American Indian cultures. 

• Human settlement dates to the Paleoindian Period nearly 13,000 years ago. 
• By about 3000 B.C., Indians of the Late Archaic Period established more permanent communities, including one at Stallings Island in the Savannah River.

From the 700s to the 1400s, the Mississippi Mound Builders thrived in northern Georgia. More complex societies emerged during this time, including communities associated with the Etowah, Ocmulgee, and Nacoochee mounds. In the 1400s, the Cherokee Nation pushed into Georgia from the north and east, which pushed the Creek Nation westward into present-day Georgia and Alabama.

San Miguel de Gualdape Slave Uprising

Spanish expeditions reached Georgia during the 1500s. According to some sources, this led to an expedition, led by Lúcas Vázquez de Ayllón, that led to the establishment of a colony on the Georgia coast in 1526, called San Miguel de Gualdape. The colonists brought African slaves with them, making them the first to arrive in the present-day United States. The colony struggled due to disease, lack of food, and attacks from local Indians. Finally, an internal dispute over leadership contributed to a slave uprising. Some believe the slaves escaped and went to live with the Indians in what is considered the first slave uprising in American history. Soon after, the colony was abandoned.

AHC Notes

• Other accounts suggest this colony was established at the mouth of the Pee Dee River in present-day South Carolina.

De Soto’s Expedition

Hernando de Soto led an expedition that traveled from Florida through Georgia and into the Carolinas in the early 1540s and recorded information about Indian cultures and societies.

• This exploratory mission into the region known as “La Florida” was called an “entrada,” meaning entrance.
• De Soto was inspired by reports written by Cabeza de Vaca, who had exaggerated the wealth in the region.
• De Soto led roughly 600 men, who plundered Indian towns, treated the people harshly, and enslaved some of them.
• Ultimately, De Soto failed to find the riches he sought, but the expedition provided Spain with important information about the interior of America.

AHC Notes

• Hernando de Soto (1500–1542) — a Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition through the southeastern United States from 1539 to 1542. His expedition explored regions including Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas. The expedition was one of the first major European expeditions into the interior of North America.
• Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (c. 1488–1559) — A Spanish explorer who is best known for his accounts of the Narváez Expedition and his subsequent journey across the present-day southern United States. Shipwrecked near present-day Galveston, Texas, in 1528, Cabeza de Vaca and a small group of survivors embarked on a remarkable journey across Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and northern Mexico.
• Narváez Expedition (1528) — A Spanish expedition led by Pánfilo de Narváez from Santo Domingo to the Gulf Coast of North America in search of gold. The 600-member expedition faced shipwrecks, disease, and harsh overland travel. Only four people survived, including Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca.

Guale

In 1566, the Spanish established an outpost on St. Catherines Island. This established Spain’s claim to the territory that eventually became Georgia. From 1568 through the 1680s, Spanish missionaries established Catholic missions among the Indians living along the coast. They referred to the region as “Guale.”

The Margravate of Azilia

Scottish aristocrat Robert Montgomery proposed a new settlement called the “Margravate of Azilia,” below South Carolina, in the same territory as Guale.

• The project failed due to a lack of funding.
• Many of Montgomery’s ideas were used later in the framework of Georgia, including townships, citizen soldiers, and silk production.

England Challenges Spain

English settlers from Carolina challenged Spanish power through trade, Indian alliances, and warfare. English-allied Indian raiders attacked Spanish missions during the 1680s, forcing Spain to withdraw south of the St. Marys River in 1686. 

During Queen Anne’s War (1702–1713), Carolina Governor James Moore led colonists and Indians against the Guale, Mocama, and Apalachee missions. His forces destroyed settlements and enslaved Indians, although they failed to capture Castillo de San Marcos, the Spanish fort at St. Augustine. These campaigns weakened Spain’s Mission System in the Southeast and strengthened English alliances with the Cherokees and Creeks.

A Buffer Colony

At the time, the American Colonies along the East Coast were threatened by the French to the North (Canada) and West (Mississippi River Valley) and the Spanish to the South (Florida). The Yamasee War started in 1715 and damaged South Carolina plantations. 

Following the war, it was clear to British officials that the Southern Colonies were also exposed to widespread attacks from Indians. This increased demands for stronger British defenses south of the Savannah River to protect South Carolina.

In 1720, Colonel John Barnwell of South Carolina convinced the Crown to supply soldiers for a line of frontier defenses, and they built Fort King George at the mouth of the Altamaha River in 1721.  The isolated garrison struggled due to hunger and poor living conditions, but its existence established a British presence in the region.

AHC Notes

• Yamasee War (1715–1717) — The Yamasee War was fought by a coalition of Native American Indian tribes, led by the Yamasees, and the South Carolina Militia. South Carolina won the war, gained control of land, and formed an alliance with the Iroquois Confederacy.

Religious Persecution in Europe and New England

Like the other colonies, Georgia became a destination for Western Europeans who sought religious freedom and an escape from the ongoing conflicts between Catholics and Protestants. This included Catholics, Protestants, and Quakers who were forced to flee Britain and the Continent. Despite the promise of religious freedom, these groups continued to face oppression and discrimination in America.

• Puritans moved to Massachusetts Bay Colony to separate from the Church of England and its ceremonies. However, the oppressive Puritan regime forced Roger Williams and his followers to leave Massachusetts. They founded the Province of Rhode Island.
• Roman Catholics found temporary religious refuge in the Province of Maryland and clashed with Protestants in the colony on several occasions.
• Quakers, also known as the “Society of Friends,” settled in Pennsylvania to avoid imprisonment and mistreatment in England and New England.

However, there was another issue that came to the forefront in Britain that created another wave of refugees — Debtors’ Prisons.

Imprisonment for Debt in England

Debt Laws allowed a person to be held in a Debtor’s Prison for failing to pay their debt until the amount of money they owed was repaid. Unfortunately, many debtors died in prison, which was referred to as paying the “Debt of Nature.”

• In the early 18th Century, Debt Laws gained attention in England.
• Thousands were imprisoned, even if financial hardship was caused by illness or bad luck.
• Debtors were often mistreated and lived in inhumane conditions. They were exposed to diseases that spread rapidly in unsanitary living conditions.
• Eventually, the situation drew the attention of social reformers who believed Debtors’ Prisons were unacceptable in a civilized society.
• In response, Parliament set up a committee (Parliamentary Gaols Committee) in 1729 to investigate the treatment of imprisoned debtors. One of the members of this committee was Colonel James Oglethorpe.

James Oglethorpe and Prison Reform

James Oglethorpe played a key role in the effort to expose the conditions in Debtors’ Prisons. He was a member of Parliament who was involved in various committees, but was rarely involved in debates. 

After a friend of his died in Fleet Prison, Oglethorpe called for an investigation into the conduct of the warden, Thomas Bainbridge. This increased Oglethorpe’s role on the Gaols Committee, and he was named chairman on February 25, 1729.

• The committee exposed the conditions inside British jails, including extreme suffering, poverty, and hopelessness among prisoners.
• The public was horrified by the detailed accounts of prison life and reports that jailors treated prisoners in such a cruel manner.
• Oglethorpe called for prison reform and placed most of the blame on the wardens for the deplorable conditions.

Ultimately, Oglethorpe’s attempts at prison reform were blocked or failed. He responded by disbanding the Gaols Committee and turning his sights to other areas.

The Bray Associates

While working on the Gaols Committee, Oglethorpe met John Percival, the 1st Earl of Egmont. In 1730, Oglethorpe shared a plan with him to establish a colony in America. Oglethorpe expected it to be a place to send the poor, destitute, and unemployable of London, many of whom were living on the streets. To start the colony, Oglethorpe needed funding. He met Reverend Thomas Bray, a philanthropist who was in poor health. 

• Bray was familiar with the American Colonies, having helped establish the Church of England in the Maryland Colony. 
• Bray also helped fund the establishment of Anglican parishes and libraries throughout England, Wales, and America.
• Bray also supported prison reform.

Bray started to worry that everything he had accomplished would fail without his guidance. To continue his work, he created the “Bray Associates”, which was tasked with using the funds he would leave behind to continue his humanitarian efforts and oversee them. Percival was a member of the Associates.

AHC Notes

• The Bray Associates are also known as “Doctor Bray’s Associates” or the “Associates of Dr. Bray.”
• Oglethorpe joined the Bray Associates in February 1730, and Bray died the same month. 

Oglethorpe Chooses America for the Colony

Six weeks after Bray died, on April 1, 1730, Oglethorpe decided to establish his colony in America. Then, on June 26, he chose the buffer zone between South Carolina and Spanish Florida and suggested the colony would be inhabited by “citizen soldiers.” These men would be the first line of defense for the Southern Colonies.

• July 1 — Oglethorpe and the Bray Associates decided to use all their resources for the establishment of the colony and started to seek investors.
• September 17 — A plan was presented to the Privy Council.
• November 12 — A public relations plan started that produced pamphlets and other literature to promote the colony.

Georgia’s Charter

On June 9, 1732, King George II issued a charter, establishing the colony of “Georgia,” which was named in his honor.

• The charter defined Georgia’s borders from the Savannah River in the north to the Altamaha River in the south.
• The western boundary extended from the sources of those rivers to the Pacific Ocean, making it a “sea to sea” charter.

A group of 21 Trustees was given control of Georgia for 21 years, with the understanding that the Crown would take control afterward.

• Oglethorpe and Anthony Ashley Cooper, the 4th Earl of Shaftesbury, were two of the Trustees.
• John Percival was the first President of the Trustees

• Oglethorpe volunteered to lead the first group of settlers and help them establish a settlement.
• He published a pamphlet promoting Georgia as a place where debtors and criminals could reform themselves through hard work. 

The Trustees struggled to raise money for the project and petitioned Parliament for funding. A grant of £10,000 was approved. King George II also approved the acquisition of 74 cannons and ammunition to help defend the settlers.

British officials were hopeful that Georgia would provide critical natural resources, including grapes, silk, and olives, for the Mercantile System. Because of Georgia’s perceived value, the British government spent approximately £236,000 on the colony from 1732 to 1752.

• Many of the Trustees were members of Parliament.
• Prime Minister Robert Walpole often relied on their support.
• In return, Parliament helped fund Georgia.

Georgia’s future relied on financial support from Parliament and was not reliant on the production of natural resources, as the case had been with Virginia. Georgia was the first British Colony in America that received financial support from Parliament from its inception. John Percival was largely responsible for securing funding for the colony.

• Unlike the other colonies, the Georgia Charter did not establish a legislative assembly. Oglethorpe was responsible for directing civil and military actions.
• The Charter also banned Jews and Catholics. However, Oglethorpe defied this provision, allowing a group of Jews to join the settlement at Savannah in 1733.

The Oglethorpe Plan

Oglethorpe, Percival, and others developed a plan for the colony, which is known as the “Oglethorpe Plan.” It established a grid for the layout of the first settlement, which was a series of repeating blocks of various sizes that were designated for residential, commercial, and public use.

• The main block was known as a “Ward.”
• Each Ward contained four residential blocks and four civil blocks, with a public square in the center.
• Each residential block contained 10 houses and was given a small tract of land outside of the town for farming.

AHC Notes

• The original six Wards in Savannah have been preserved as a National Historic Landmark.

The Worthy Poor and Voyage of the First Settlers

Hundreds of people applied to be among the first settlers of Georgia. One hundred fourteen people from 35 families were selected, and included men, women, and children. 

• Known as the “Worthy Poor,” they departed from Gravesend, England, on November 6, 1732, aboard the Anne, a 200-ton ship.
• Nearly all male settlers were skilled mechanics or artisans. Some were silk workers who transported silkworm eggs to the colony. 
• They brought enough food to sustain themselves until their crops grew.

They reached Charleston, South Carolina, in January 1733, where colonial officials welcomed Oglethorpe and the settlers.

• Governor Robert Johnson asked the South Carolina Assembly to provide Oglethorpe and the settlers with cattle, rice, and other supplies.
• Pilots helped guide the Anne to Port Royal Sound near Beaufort Island.
• From there, the settlers traveled in small boats to the Savannah River.

Despite the good intentions to give the Worthy Poor a new start in Georgia, British officials also wanted to reduce the population of the poor and destitute living in prisons and on the streets of London. They also worked to keep the settlers from falling back into poverty, or from becoming too wealthy. As part of the plan, restrictions were put in place on land ownership and inheritance laws:

• Land Ownership — Land ownership was capped at 500 acres. Most settlers received 50 acres, and their land grants included clauses that restricted mortgages and the sale of property.
• Inheritance Laws — Upon a landowner’s death, the property could only be passed to the eldest male heir. If no male heirs existed, the land would revert to the Trustees. Widows or daughters had to petition for exemptions to inherit property. 

The Trustees believed the restrictions were necessary to maintain a sufficient supply of adult male militiamen (the citizen soldiers). Some settlers were upset by these restrictions and responded by delaying the clearing or cultivation of their land. Over time, some Georgians viewed these laws as violating their rights as Englishmen.

AHC Notes

• The trustees planned Georgia as a model society of small farmers.
• Although Oglethorpe envisioned a refuge for debtors, no released prisoners joined the first colonists. The Trustees selected farmers, carpenters, bakers, tailors, merchants, and other skilled workers.

Oglethorpe Chooses the Location of Savannah

Leaving the settlers behind at Port Royal, Oglethorpe and Carolina Rangers scouted locations along the Savannah River. He chose a site overlooking the river, known as Yamacraw Bluff, and sent for the settlers, all of whom arrived by February 12, 1733.

• The Savannah River at the point he chose was wide and had fresh water. 
• There was a fertile island in the river, suitable for pasturing cattle.
• Tybee Island sat at the river’s mouth.
• A wide stream bordered by tall forests ran inland for six miles.

Once the settlers were at Yamacraw Bluff, they built temporary shelters and started laying out the town, according to the Oglethorpe Plan.

On February 22, Oglethorpe wrote, “The whole people arrived on the first of February. At night their tents were got up. ‘Till the 7th we were taken up in unloading and making a crane, which I even then could not get finished so took off the hands and set some of the fortification and begun to fell the woods. I marked out the town and common. Half of the former is already cleared, and the first house was begun yesterday in the afternoon.”

A 10-acre garden was planted outside the city. Known as the “Trustee’s Garden,” it was designed to grow plants that could be used for medicines or for the production of important raw materials. The garden included various fruit trees, including mulberry trees that were used to feed silkworms.

AHC Notes

• The dates Oglethorpe uses in his letter are Old Style (O.S.) Dates. February 1 is February 11 in the New Style (N.S.), and February 7 is February 18.

Early Diplomatic Relations with Indians, Spanish, and French

Oglethorpe selected the site for Savannah in territory controlled by the Lower Towns of the Creek Nation and close to the Yamacraws and Savannahs, who were led by Chief Tomochichi. At the time, Tomochichi is believed to have been over 90 years old.

Oglethorpe started negotiations with Tomochichi in February 1733, which lasted for several weeks. Tomochichi formally ceded the land selected for the settlement to Oglethorpe.

• The settlers at Savannah cleared forests, constructed homes, and dug a well after contaminated river water caused dysentery and other illnesses.
• Oglethorpe also communicated his arrival to Spanish and French officials.
• He set up defensive fortifications in case his diplomatic efforts failed, and conducted militia drills.

Treaty of Savannah

Tomochichi arranged a meeting with the leaders of the Lower Creeks and Yamacraws to approve the agreement with Oglethorpe.

• An agreement was reached that allowed Oglethorpe and his settlers to “use” the land, but English all unoccupied lands within specified boundaries.
• It officially allowed Oglethorpe and his settlers to “…make use of and possess all those Lands…” the Creeks “…hath not occasion for to use…”
• Oglethorpe and the Creeks agreed to the Treaty of Savannah on May 21, 1733.
• The Georgia Trustees officially approved the treaty in October 1733.

AHC Notes

• Colonel John Musgrove Sr., a South Carolina trader, and his wife, Mary Musgrove, helped Oglethorpe communicate with Tomochichi, who welcomed the English because he believed a nearby settlement would provide a trading partner for his people.
• Unfortunately, 25% of the original settlers died within 10 months of their arrival due to illness.

Early Success

Early agricultural success created optimism among settlers, as the first crop of Indian corn yielded an estimated 1,000 bushels. The success encouraged immigration, and more people arrived, increasing Georgia’s population. 

Despite the ban on Jews, Oglethorpe welcomed a group of them that included Dr. Samuel Nunes, who provided essential services and helped found Congregation Mickve Israel, which is the oldest Jewish congregation in the South. 

Oglethorpe Returns to Britain

With the colony stable, Oglethorpe returned to England in the spring of 1734. Believing it was important for Indian leaders to witness England’s power and civilization, he invited Tomochichi, his wife, their son, and several other chiefs to accompany him as guests. John and Mary Musgrove went along to serve as interpreters for the Creeks.

• The ship carrying Oglethorpe and the Creek delegation arrived in England in June 1734.
• The Creeks received a warm welcome, similar to the reception of Pocahontas over 100 years before.
• On August 1, King George II granted them an audience at Kensington Palace.
• Tomochichi presented eagle feathers to the king as a symbolic gift.

Tomochichi’s brother-in-law contracted smallpox during the visit to England. Although doctors cared for him, he died and was buried according to Creek customs. After the funeral, Oglethorpe hosted the Creek delegation at his estate.

• He treated them with generous hospitality throughout their stay in England, which lasted for four months.
• The Creeks returned to Savannah at the end of 1734.
• Oglethorpe remained in England.

The Salzburgers Establish Ebenezer

In 1734, a group of Salzburgers (German Protestants) arrived in Charleston. They were exiles forced to flee from Salzburg, in present-day Austria. Baron Philip Georg Friedrich von Reck and Johann Martin Bolzius led them.

• Due to their distinct customs and ways of life, they were settled separately from the English colonists.
• They established a settlement named “Ebenezer,” a term expressing thanks to God.
• The stream and town where they settled also took the name Ebenezer.
• Ebenezer was northwest of Savannah.

The original site was plagued by poor soil, swampy land, and limited river access. The Salzburgers relocated in 1736 and established “New Ebenezer.” It was here that they created a religious community that defied the use of slave labor.

• Over time, they produced and exported 5 tons of raw silk annually.
• Indigo became a major crop cultivated by the settlers.
• Their economic growth exceeded all early expectations for the region.

Georgia’s First Laws

The Trustees enacted three laws in 1735 that banned rum, regulated trade with the Indians, and banned ownership of slaves. Oglethorpe played a key role in the development and passage of these laws. These were the only laws the Trustees enacted, but they created tension between Oglethorpe and the settlers in Georgia, and between Oglethorpe and merchants in South Carolina.

• Georgia settlers felt the laws restricted their rights and the opportunity to improve their wealth.
• South Carolina merchants believed the laws discriminated against them by reducing their customer base.

Slavery was banned for two main reasons:

1. British officials believed the presence of slaves would make it more difficult to defend the colony against attacks from the Spanish. One concern was that slaves could revolt and aid the Spanish.
2. The Trustees believed the poor white settlers needed to work. The presence of slaves would limit job opportunities.

Over time, Georgia settlers protested the ban on slavery, arguing it restricted their economic and legal rights. They justified their arguments by pointing out how successful the Plantation System was in the other Southern Colonies.

AHC Notes

• The Salzurgers in Ebenezer and the Highland Scots in Darien did not embrace slavery. Further, they encouraged the Trustees to maintain the ban.

Rum Trade in Georgia

The rum trade was banned to keep the popular liquor away from the settlers and the Indians. However, South Carolina had a growing rum industry, and merchants wanted to sell to Georgians. Many Georgians were eager to buy it, which led to smuggling (illegal trade).

Oglethorpe and the Great Embarkation

Oglethorpe returned to Georgia in late 1735. The return voyage included soldiers and prominent settlers and is called the “Great Embarkation.” They sailed on the Symond and London Merchant and were escorted by the British warship, Hawk.

• Oglethorpe brought 150 Scottish Highlanders with him. These trained soldiers were Georgia’s first regular troops. They were well equipped and arrived with several cannons.
• John Wesley and Charles Wesley, two pastors who later founded Methodism, accompanied Oglethorpe. John Wesley came as a missionary to the Indians. Charles Wesley served as Oglethorpe’s personal secretary.
• Several Moravians were also on the journey.

Due to delays and rough weather, the ships did not arrive until February 4, 1736. Upon his arrival at Tybee Island, Oglethorpe was outraged to find the settlers had not completed a lighthouse at Savannah that was supposed to help guide ships up the river.

New Settlements Established in 1736

Soon after, Oglethorpe led an expedition that explored the Georgia coast and nearby islands. He took some of the Scottish Highlanders with him and established Fort Frederica on St. Simons Island and built defensive fortifications on the Cumberland Islands. 

The Highlanders were given land along the Altamaha River, which Britain claimed as the southern boundary with Spanish Florida.

• They established the town of New Inverness and built a fort called Darien.
• More Scottish immigrants arrived and joined them, creating a distinct community.
• The settlers preserved Scottish customs and traditional Highland dress.
• When Oglethorpe visited the settlement, he wore Highland attire to honor their heritage.

Augusta was established at the Falls of the Savannah to serve as a post for trading with the Indians. It became a major center for trade with the Creeks, Chickasaws, and Cherokees because boats could carry deerskins and other goods from the settlement to Savannah.

The Wesley Brothers in Georgia

The Wesleys were Anglican clergymen and still young men when they arrived in Georgia. They came to minister to the colonists and convert Indians to Christianity.

Charles initially served as Oglethorpe’s secretary and was sent to Fort Frederica on St. Simons Island. However, he clashed with the inhabitants and returned to England in August 1736.

John remained in Savannah, where he established an early “Sunday School” for the children to receive religious instruction. John invited controversy due to his adherence to strict guidelines that he established, including refusing to give Communion to anyone who was not baptized. 

While in Savannah, he became close with a woman, Sophia Hopkins. However, church leaders suggested he should not marry her. After he started ignoring her, she married another man. When John refused to give her Communion, she was embarrassed, and he was arrested for defaming her. Wesley was tried in court, but was cleared of the charges. Afterward, he decided he could not remain in Georgia, and he returned to England in 1737.

George Whitefield Arrives in Georgia

George Whitefield succeeded John Wesley in Georgia, becoming one of the most influential preachers of the 18th Century due to his role in the First Great Awakening.

• Whitefield was known for his clear, powerful voice and persuasive eloquence.
• His preaching deeply moved his audiences and drew widespread admiration.
• Whitefield gained immediate popularity among the colonists.
• He cooperated with Moravians and others who aimed to improve human welfare.

Whitefield also established an orphanage, the Bethesda Orphan House, in Savannah, funded through donations, most of which came from England.

Oglethorpe Moves Georgia’s Southern Border

Oglethorpe extended Georgia’s southern boundary to the St. John’s River, justifying the move by arguing Britain’s Indian allies controlled the territory.

• Oglethorpe took this action with support from the Highlanders.
• Britain, favoring territorial expansion, supported Oglethorpe’s claim.

Oglethorpe sent a formal message to Spanish authorities in St. Augustine, informing them that he had set Georgia’s southern boundary at the St. Mary’s River.

• Oglethorpe understood the Spanish would reject this boundary unless forced to accept it through military pressure.
• In response, he started preparing for armed conflict. A fort was constructed to control access to the mouth of the St. Mary’s River. Fort St. George, located at the mouth of the St. John’s River, was also completed.

Difficulties with the Spanish in Florida

Outraged by Oglethorpe’s message, Spanish authorities in St. Augustine arrested and imprisoned his messengers. As the possibility of war between Georgia and Florida increased, Tomochichi’s Yamacraws and the Chickasaw Nation allied with Oglethorpe.

• Upon learning of the alliances, the Spanish released Oglethorpe’s messengers.
• A temporary treaty was made, and British forces withdrew from Fort St. George.

The Spanish government later rejected the treaty and sent a commission from Cuba to meet with Oglethorpe at Fort Frederica in late 1736.

• The Spanish demanded Britain abandon all of Georgia and part of South Carolina.
• The meeting ended without agreement or resolution.

Oglethorpe Prepares for War with Spain

Oglethorpe returned to England to discuss Spanish Florida’s increasing threat to Georgia. He told the Trustees that Spain was sending troops into Florida and intended to defend its territorial claims with force. 

• The Trustees appointed him as a Brigadier General with command of provincial troops in South Carolina and Georgia.
• Parliament authorized him to recruit soldiers in England and provided financial support.
• Oglethorpe raised a trained 600 men.
• He returned to Georgia in the fall of 1738 with these troops.

Oglethorpe Threatens to Abandon Georgia

Upon his return to Georgia, Oglethorpe encountered widespread dissatisfaction. Some settlers were relocating to South Carolina, while others, who did not like working in the hot, humid climate, rented enslaved workers from South Carolina merchants. They argued that slavery was essential to Georgia’s economy, just as it was in South Carolina

Moravians and Salzburgers continued to reject the use of slave labor in their communities. Most other colonists argued that slavery was essential, just as it was in South Carolina. Oglethorpe was strongly opposed to slavery and threatened to resign and leave Georgia if it was legalized.

Assassination Attempt Against Oglethorpe

While Oglethorpe was in England, the Spanish tried to turn his Indian allies against him, but failed. Afterward, they tried to influence his soldiers to turn against him and succeeded.

• A plot to assassinate Oglethorpe emerged.
• The conspiracy was discovered and dealt with swiftly.
• A court-martial was held, and several conspirators were executed.
• These actions ended the immediate threat to Oglethorpe’s life and authority.

The Convention of Pardo

In January 1739, the Convention of Pardo was held to try to resolve the differences between Britain and Spain, which included a dispute over the border between Georgia and Florida. After the negotiations broke down, both nations prepared for war.

The War of Jenkins’ Ear Begins

Spain planned to invade Georgia and sent supplies from Cuba to St. Augustine for the expedition. Prime Minister Robert Walpole countered by sending ships and 700 men to Georgia to help Oglethorpe defend the colony. England then declared war on October 23, 1739, initiating what is known as the War of Jenkins’ Ear.

AHC Notes

• War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739–1748) — A conflict between Great Britain and Spain. Most of the battles were fought in the Caribbean, but it carried over to America, where Georgia and Florida clashed over disputed territory. Hostilities continued between the two nations, as the War of the Austrian Succession engulfed Europe. In North America, the fight became known as King George’s War.

Oglethorpe Invades Florida

Oglethorpe received instructions from King George II to “annoy the Subjects of Spain in the best manner.” He spoke to his allies in the Creek Nation, and they agreed to support the British war effort and to carry out attacks against the Spanish and their Indian allies.

• Oglethorpe learned that the Spanish were fortifying St. Augustine, and he planned to attack before the work was complete.
• In November 1739, the Spanish killed two British soldiers at Amelia Island.

Oglethorpe responded by organizing a small force of around 200-400 men, including Georgia Militia and Indian warriors. Leading the army himself, Oglethorpe started his march toward St. Augustine in December 1739, intending to capture the city and force the Spanish to leave Florida.

In early 1740, Oglethorpe overran and took control of Spanish forts along the way to St. Augustine, including Fort Mosé, which was the first free black settlement in America. However, he realized his army was too small to take St. Augustine, so he went to Charleston, South Carolina, to recruit more volunteers and Indian warriors. He returned with additional troops from North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia, along with more Indian warriors. His reinforcements from England also arrived, which raised the size of his army to roughly 2,000. This army was joined by four ships from the Royal Navy.

• In June, he arrived at St. Augustine and demanded the fort’s surrender.
• The Spanish refused, and Oglethorpe laid siege to the fort.

The small squadron of English ships tried to blockade the harbor. However, it was ineffective, allowing the Spanish to bring supplies as needed.

• British artillery lacked the range to damage the fort.
• The summer brought widespread sickness to the troops, including Oglethorpe.
• He was forced to end the siege and return to Georgia.

Colonists living in Georgia and South Carolina were shocked at Oglethorpe’s failure to capture St. Augustine and expected the Spanish to retaliate. When Oglethorpe returned to Savannah, he started to make preparations for a Spanish attack.

AHC Notes

• Fort Mosé — An important Spanish fort located north of St. Augustine. It was inhabited by escaped slaves who were given their freedom by the Spanish government in return for converting to Catholicism and serving in the militia. It is considered to be the first settlement of free Africans in America.

Gully Hole Creek and Bloody Marsh

No significant military actions took place in Georgia for about two years following the failed siege. The situation changed in May 1742, when 2,000 Spanish troops under Don Antonio de Rodondo arrived at St. Augustine from Cuba, indicating the Spanish planned to invade Georgia.

• Oglethorpe requested military support from South Carolina to defend against the threat.
• South Carolina declined to assist.
• Oglethorpe prepared to defend Georgia with whatever men he could gather. His army was roughly 800 men, including Highlanders, Indians, and free blacks.
• He took his army to St. Simons Island and occupied Fort Frederica.

On July 5, a Spanish fleet of 36 ships and 4,000-5,000 men, led by Governor Manuel de Montiano, arrived at St. Simons Island. The Spanish occupied Fort St. Simons and then marched toward Fort Frederica on July 7.

• Oglethorpe routed the Spanish at the Battle of Gully Hole Creek.
• The Spanish retreated, and Oglethorpe’s forces pursued them.
• The Spanish prepared to launch a second attack.
• The Spanish launched the attack but were routed again in the Battle of Bloody Marsh.

Soon after, ships carrying reinforcements from Charleston arrived in Georgia. Fearing an attack on St. Augustine was imminent, the Spanish withdrew and returned to Florida.

Oglethorpe’s Final Years

After founding, settling, and defending Georgia, Oglethorpe returned to England in July 1743. By this time, the Malcontents had sent petitions to London, arguing that Oglethorpe was a tyrant and Georgia was suffering under his leadership and Trustee oversight. Although a House of Commons investigation supported the Trustees, the protests weakened their authority.

• Oglethorpe continued to serve in military roles for the Crown and was asked to lead British forces in America during the American Revolutionary War, even though he was 80 years old.
• The Ministry and Parliament declined to appoint him, believing he was too humane.
• When John Adams arrived in London as America’s first Minister to the Court of St. James, Oglethorpe met with him.

The Trustees Relinquish Control of Georgia

Without Oglethorpe’s leadership, Georgia’s economy struggled. Lumber, cattle, potash, barrel staves, and the Fur Trade provided some income, but Georgia remained a financial burden on Parliament.

• Planned silk production failed because of poor weather and inexperienced workers. 
• Indentured Servants and some self-funded settlers moved to South Carolina.
• Savannah became dependent on Charleston’s port.  

The Trustees lifted most land restrictions in 1749, and permitted slavery by 1750. They also allowed an elected assembly, which met in 1751.

In June 1752, 20 years after its founding, and one year before they were required to, the Trustees surrendered Georgia’s charter to the Crown. Although the colony was stable, it was struggling to grow.

Georgia Under Royal Control

Georgia became a Royal Colony and remained so until the American Revolution. Under Royal control, immigration and economic development improved. The government was reorganized to include a court system, an appointed Governor, a legislature with an appointed upper house and an elected Commons House of Assembly. Voting remained limited to white male landowners.

John Reynolds was appointed as the first Royal Governor, and he arrived in 1754. He was followed by Henry Ellis in 1757 and James Wright in 1760.

 In 1758, Georgia was divided into eight parishes. That same year, the Assembly made the Anglican Church Georgia’s official church and organized the colony into parishes, although other religious groups continued to worship.

• Georgia adopted the Plantation System found in the other Southern Colonies, and wealthy planters started to establish large plantations that relied heavily on enslaved workers.
• Savannah’s trade expanded throughout the 1750s and 1760s, eventually surpassing Charleston.

The outcome of the French and Indian War (1754–1763) removed France and Spain as threats to Georgia. The Treaty of Paris (1763) transferred Florida to Britain and made the Mississippi River Georgia’s western boundary. 

The Proclamation of 1763 extended Georgia’s southern border to the St. Marys River while reserving western lands for Indians. After the Muscogee ceded more than two million acres to Britain, Georgia used the Headright System to attract settlers.

Population, rice production, and trade grew rapidly. Rice and indigo became leading cash crops, while timber, naval stores, cattle, deerskins, and trade with Indians supported the economy. By 1773, Georgia had approximately 33,000 residents, about half of whom were enslaved.

Savannah developed into a busy port with merchants, artisans, professionals, taverns, and a newspaper, the Georgia Gazette. Augusta served as the center of Backcountry trade. 

Social divisions widened as wealthy planters gained more land and enslaved workers, while small farmers, laborers, and Indentured Servants held less influence. These economic and cultural changes transformed Georgia from a trustee experiment into a plantation colony.

In 1773, Governor Wright acquired more land from the Indians; however, expansion produced new tensions with the Creeks and Cherokees. Despite the onset of the American Revolution, Georgia was still dependent on Parliament to help provide for its defense, and was slow to support the Patriot Cause, even after the passage of the Intolerable Acts.

AP US History

Definition

Georgia Colony — Georgia was the last of Britain’s 13 Original Colonies in America. It was established by charter in 1732 and settled in 1733. James Oglethorpe and the London-based Trustees envisioned it as a refuge for the “Worthy Poor,” a mercantile project, and a military buffer against Spanish Florida and New France. After Oglethorpe successfully defended Georgia during the War of Jenkins’ Ear, he returned to England. The Trustees restricted landownership and prohibited slavery, but opposition from “Malcontents” helped overturn these policies. Georgia became a royal colony in 1752, developed a slave-based plantation economy, and hesitated to join the Patriot Cause due to its reliance on financial and military support from Parliament.

Alignment

Georgia Colony is part of the following units, topics, and chapters in the APUSH Curriculum:

Unit 1: 1491–1607

• 1.6 — Cultural Interactions Between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans

Unit 2: 1607–1754

• 2.2 — European Colonization
• 2.3 — The Regions of British Colonies
• 2.4 — Transatlantic Trade
• 2.5 — Interactions Between American Indians and Europeans
• 2.6 — Slavery in the British Colonies
• 2.7 — Colonial Society and Culture

American Pageant Notes

• The Planting of English America (1500–1733)
• American Life in the 17th Century (1607–1692)
• Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution (1700–1775)