Girding for War: the North and the South

The Inauguration of Abraham Lincoln and the Threat of Secession

On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln took the Oath of Office amid a divided nation, torn apart after more than 60 years of division over slavery, taxation, and debates over States’ Rights.

Seven states had seceded and formed the Confederate States of America. Lincoln faced incredible challenges as he hoped to restore the Union and keep more states from leaving. However, the seizure of Federal military installations and supplies complicated the situation.

Lincoln sought reconciliation in his inaugural address but made clear a military conflict would only occur if provoked by the South. He argued against Secession, warning it could lead to an increase in fugitive slaves, which would harm the South. He also warned the Southern States that Secession would allow European nations to challenge the Monroe Doctrine and interfere in Latin America.

AHC Note—The Monroe Doctrine is a cornerstone of American foreign policy. It warned against European influence in the Western Hemisphere and has been modified to justify American involvement in the region.

South Carolina Assails Fort Sumter

In the last days of James Buchanan’s Presidency, Federal forts in the South became a key issue as states seceded and seized them. Secretary of War John B. Floyd and other Southern politicians aided in this. When Lincoln took office, the American Flag only remained over two major forts in the South, including Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. As the fort’s supplies dwindled, Lincoln was faced with giving up the fort or sending supplies. He notified South Carolina he would not give up the fort and sent supplies. On April 12, 1861, South Carolina forces attacked the fort, leading to its surrender. The Battle of Fort Sumter energized the North, prompting Lincoln to call for 75,000 militiamen and declare a partial blockade. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina responded by leaving the Union and joining the Confederate States of America.

AHC Note — The blockade of Southern ports and waterways was called the “Anaconda Plan.” It was General Winfield Scott’s strategy to slowly strangle the Confederacy by blockading southern seaports and seizing control of the Mississippi River.

Federal Forts and Secession

• The issue of divided Union focused on Federal forts in the South.
• As states seceded, they seized U.S. arsenals, mints, and other public property.
• By the time Lincoln took office, only two major forts in the South still displayed the American flag.
• The important one was Fort Sumter, located in Charleston Harbor.
• Fort Sumter had fewer than 100 men stationed there.

AHC Note — South Carolina Governor Francis Pickens tried to negotiate a peaceful takeover of Federal facilities in Charleston Harbor, including Fort Sumter. When Major Robert Anderson moved his men from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter, Pickens had the South Carolina militia build artillery batteries around Charleston Harbor that could fire on the fort and prevent Union supply ships from reaching it. After the Confederate States of America was formed, P.G.T. Beauregard was placed in command of Confederate forces laying siege to Fort Sumter.

Lincoln’s Dilemma with Fort Sumter

• Lincoln faced difficult choices regarding Fort Sumter.
• The fort’s provisions would last only a few weeks, until mid-April 1861.
• Without supplies, the fort would need to surrender without a fight.
• Lincoln felt surrendering without resistance did not align with his duty to protect Federal property.
• However, sending reinforcements would likely provoke the South Carolinians, who could not accept a Federal fort blocking their key Atlantic seaport.

Lincoln’s Middle-of-the-Road Solution

• Lincoln chose a compromise approach after much deliberation.
• He informed South Carolinians that an expedition would be sent to provide supplies to Fort Sumter but not to reinforce it.
• To the South, the term “provision” was interpreted as “reinforcement.”

The Attack on Fort Sumter

• Union ships were sent to Fort Sumter, which the South viewed as an aggressive act.
• On April 12, 1861, South Carolinians began firing on the fort.
• Crowds in Charleston cheered and waved handkerchiefs during the attack.
• After a 34-hour bombardment, which caused no casualties, the garrison at Fort Sumter surrendered.

AHC Note — When President Lincoln announced he was sending three unarmed supply ships to Fort Sumter, the Confederates warned that it would be viewed as an act of aggression. Anderson and Beauregard negotiated the fort’s surrender but could not agree to terms. As a result, Confederate artillery batteries opened fire on Fort Sumter at 4:30 a.m. on April 12. The Confederate batteries shelled the fort until the afternoon of April 13, when Anderson finally surrendered. 

Northern Response to Fort Sumter

• The attack on Fort Sumter energized the North.
• Northern cries included “Remember Fort Sumter” and “Save the Union.”
• Many Northerners had previously suggested letting the Southern states leave peacefully.
• The sentiment “Wayward sisters, depart in peace” was widely shared, including by General Winfield Scott, the aging leader of the U.S. Army.
• At 75, Scott was so weak that he needed help mounting his horse.

Northern Mobilization and Lincoln’s Response

• The attack on Fort Sumter stirred the North to action.
• Although the fort was lost, Lincoln turned it into a strategic advantage for the Union.
• Southerners’ attack on the American flag called for an armed response.
• On April 15, Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen from the states.
• Volunteers came forward in such large numbers that many were turned away.
• This high level of enthusiasm was a rare occurrence.
• On April 19 and April 27, Lincoln declared a partial blockade of Southern seaports.

Southern Reaction and Expansion of the Confederacy

• The call for troops by Lincoln intensified Southern sentiment, similar to how the attack on Fort Sumter had galvanized the North.
• To the South, Lincoln’s actions were seen as an aggressive war against the Confederacy.
• Virginia, Arkansas, and Tennessee, which had previously rejected secession, joined the Confederacy along with North Carolina.
• This expansion increased the number of Confederate states from 7 to 11.
• Richmond, Virginia, became the new Confederate capital, replacing Montgomery, Alabama.
• Richmond’s location was strategically significant, being close to Washington, D.C.

Brothers’ Blood and Border Blood

The Border States — Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware, and later West Virginia — were important throughout the war. If they seceded, they would have bolstered the South due to their large populations and resources. Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri would have nearly doubled the South’s manufacturing and supply capacities. Lincoln recognized the importance of the Border States and used various tactics — including some questionable legal actions —- to maintain control. At the start, he focused on preserving the Union rather than ending slavery so the Border States did not feel compelled to secede. In the West, Native American Indian tribes were divided, with some supporting the Confederacy and others the Union. The war also saw divisions within families, as men from the same family fought on opposite sides.

Significance of the Border States

• The remaining slave states were the crucial Border States: Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware, and later West Virginia.
• West Virginia split from Virginia in mid-1861, somewhat controversially.
• If the North had initiated conflict, these Border States might have seceded, potentially leading to Southern success.
• The Border States had a white population exceeding half that of the entire Confederacy.
• Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri would nearly double the South’s manufacturing capacity and significantly increase its supply of horses and mules.
• The Ohio River, a strategic military asset, flowed along Kentucky’s and West Virginia’s northern borders.
• The Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers, which were navigable, entered deep into the Confederate heartland, where key resources like grain, gunpowder, and iron were produced.
• Lincoln believed he needed Kentucky for strategic reasons.

AHC Note — The West Virginia Campaign of 1861 was a struggle between Union and Confederate forces for control of the mountainous region of Western Virginia. The Union victory paved the way for West Virginia to separate from Virginia in 1863 and join the Union.

AHC Note — The Confederate Heartland Campaign, also known as Bragg’s Invasion of Kentucky, was a Confederate invasion of the border state of Kentucky in 1862. Although Confederate forces were largely successful on the battlefield, General Braxton Bragg abandoned the campaign and retreated to Tennessee, leaving Kentucky under Union control.

AHC Note — In August 1864, Major General Sterling Price led the Confederate Army of Missouri on an unsuccessful raid into Missouri and Kansas. Price intended to boost Confederate support in the West, force the Union to divert troops away from the Eastern Theater and hurt President Abraham Lincoln’s campaign for reelection.

Lincoln’s Actions in the Border States

• Lincoln used both moral arguments and questionable legal methods to manage the Border States.
• In Maryland, he declared martial law and sent troops to prevent the state from isolating Washington, D.C.
• Union soldiers were also deployed in western Virginia and Missouri.
• In Missouri, Union troops fought alongside local Unionists in a regional conflict within the broader Civil War.

Lincoln’s War Aims and Political Strategy

• Lincoln’s war aims were influenced by the unstable Border States.
• At the start, he publicly stated that the war was not about freeing slaves.
• An antislavery stance could have pushed the Border States to join the South.
• The Butternut Region, including southern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, was settled by Southerners with racial prejudices, making an antislavery war unpopular.
• This region had strong pro-Southern sentiments during the war.
• Lincoln focused on saving the Union, even if it meant compromising on moral principles.
• The war began as a struggle to preserve the Union rather than a conflict over slavery, with slaveholders on both sides and proslavery sentiment in the North.

Slavery and the Role of Native Americans in the West

• In the West, slavery influenced the dynamics of the war.
• Most of the Five Civilized Tribes in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) supported the Confederacy.
• Some Indians, like the Cherokees, owned slaves and aligned with the slaveholding South.
• The Confederate government agreed to assume Federal payments to the tribes and invited them to send delegates to the Confederate Congress.
• In exchange, the tribes provided troops to the Confederate army.
• A faction of Cherokees and most Plains Indians supported the Union.
• After the war, these tribes faced aggressive military campaigns to force them onto reservations or into obscurity.

AHC Note — The Five Civilized Tribes were the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminoles. Some of these tribes moved to Indian Territory as part of the Indian Removal Act (1830), and some were forcibly removed during the Trail of Tears.

Family Divisions in the Civil War

• The Civil War was a conflict between individuals with divided loyalties.
• Many Northern volunteers came from Southern states, and many Southern volunteers came from Northern states.
• Approximately 50,000 “mountain whites” from the South joined the Union forces.
• Loyal slave states contributed about 300,000 soldiers to the Union.
• In Border State families, it was common for one brother to fight for the Union and another for the Confederacy.
• Senator James Henry Crittenden of Kentucky had two sons: one a Union General, the other a Confederate General.
• First Lady Mary Todd Lincoln, who was from Kentucky, had four brothers who fought for the Confederacy.

The Balance of Forces

At the start of the War, the South had some advantages. They could fight defensively on familiar territory and needed only to maintain their position to secure independence, while the North had to invade and conquer. The South also had skilled military commanders like General Robert E. Lee and Thomas J. “Stonewall” Jackson. However, the South lacked factories and suffered supply shortages and transportation problems. The North had a substantial economic advantage, as it controlled most of the wealth and railroads and had a superior Navy to implement a blockade of Southern ports and waterways. The North’s larger population and ongoing immigration gave it more troops. Although Lincoln struggled to find a field general to lead the Union to victory, Ulysses S. Grant eventually proved his worth. Unlike others, Grant effectively used the North’s advantages and tipped the war in favor of the Union.

Confederate Advantages at the Outset of the War

• The South had key advantages at the start of the war.
• The Confederacy could fight defensively from within its own territory.
• The North needed to invade and conquer the large area of the Confederacy to bring it back into the Union.
• The South only needed to fight to a draw and maintain its position to secure independence.
• Fighting on familiar ground for self-determination, Southerners initially had a morale advantage.

Southern Military Leadership

• At the start of the war, the South had highly skilled military leaders.
• General Robert E. Lee was the most notable among these commanders.
• Lee was known for his noble demeanor and sense of honor, representing the Southern ideal.
• Lincoln had offered Lee command of the Union armies, but Lee chose to join the Confederacy when Virginia seceded.
• Lee’s primary subordinate for much of the war was Thomas J. (“Stonewall”) Jackson.
• Jackson was renowned for his tactical expertise, speed, and ability to use deception effectively.

AHC Note — When the Session Crisis escalated after Abraham Lincoln’s election to the U.S. Presidency in 1860, Robert E. Lee was serving as the acting head of the Department of Texas. Lee remained loyal to the Union and refused to cede Federal property to local secessionists. In March 1861, the War Department recalled him to Washington and promoted him to Colonel. On April 17, 1861, Virginia seceded from the Union. The next day, Lee declined a promotion to Major General in the U.S. Army. On April 20, he resigned from his commission in the U.S. Army. Three days later, Lee accepted the command of Virginia’s forces.

Southern Soldiers and Their Combat Readiness

• Ordinary Southerners were well-prepared for combat due to their upbringing.
• They were skilled in handling horses and weapons from a young age.
• These skills made them effective cavalrymen and foot soldiers.
• The Southern “rebel yell” was intended to intimidate Union recruits.
• One Northern soldier described the yell as having a unique and terrifying effect, creating a “corkscrew sensation” down the spine.

AHC Note — Samuel Gibbs French was a native of New Jersey who served in the Confederate Army during the Civil War. In his memoirs, French describes the Rebel Yell as “unearthly” in the aftermath of the battles around Marietta, including the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain. He wrote:

“The ‘Rebel Yell’ was born amidst the roar of cannon, the flash of the musket, the deadly conflict, comrades falling, and death in front — then, when rushing forward, that unearthly yell rose from a thousand Confederate throats, loud, above ‘the thunder of the captains and the shoutings,’ and with the force of a tornado they swept on over the field to death or victory.”

Southern Adaptations to Industrial Limitations

• The South faced a challenge due to its lack of factories.
• Despite this, they managed to secure enough weaponry by:
• Seizing Federal weapons.
• Running Union blockades.
• Developing their own ironworks.
• Southern ingenuity in acquiring and producing arms demonstrated that resourcefulness was not limited to the North.

Southern Supply Shortages and Transportation Issues

• The South faced shortages of shoes, uniforms, and blankets as the war progressed.
• Despite having ample food supplies, both civilians and soldiers frequently suffered from hunger due to supply problems.
• One Southern officer humorously urged his men forward by pointing out that the Yankees had cheese in their haversacks.
• Much of the food scarcity was due to disruptions in the South’s inadequate transportation system, particularly when Union forces damaged or destroyed railroad tracks.

Economic Strengths and Weaknesses

• The South’s economy was a major weakness, while the North’s economy was a significant strength.
• The North was both an extensive agricultural and industrial powerhouse.
• The North controlled about three-fourths of the nation’s wealth.
• The North also owned three-fourths of the 30,000 miles of railroad tracks.

Northern Naval Advantage and Blockade

• The North controlled the sea with a superior navy.
• Initially, the blockade was ineffective but eventually tightened, cutting off Southern supplies and damaging Southern morale.
• Northern sea power allowed the exchange of large amounts of grain for European munitions and supplies.
• This access added European factory output to Northern resources.

Union Manpower and Immigration

• The Union had a significant advantage in manpower.
• The Union States had a population of about 22 million, while the Confederate States had 9 million, including 3.5 million slaves.
• The North benefited from a large influx of immigrants from Europe during the war.
• Over 800,000 immigrants arrived between 1861 and 1865, mainly from Britain, Ireland, and Germany.
• Many of these immigrants joined the Union army, with about one-fifth of the Union forces being foreign-born.
• In some military units, commands were given in up to four different languages.

Northern Soldiers’ Adaptation

• Northern soldiers, both immigrants and natives, were initially less prepared for military life compared to their Southern counterparts.
• Despite this, Northern “clodhoppers” and “shopkeepers” adapted to soldiering over time.
• They eventually became known for their discipline and determination.

Challenges in Northern Military Leadership

• The North struggled with its higher commanders.
• Lincoln had to use a trial-and-error approach to find effective leaders among many politically appointed officers.
• He eventually found success with General Ulysses S. Grant, who achieved victory through persistent efforts.

Dethroning King Cotton

The South hoped for foreign intervention to help secure its independence, but it never happened. While aristocratic Europeans were sympathetic to the Confederate Cause, public opinion favored the North and the end of slavery. Although Great Britain was dependent on Southern cotton when the war started, it was able to replace it with cotton from Egypt and India. Britain also needed access to American grain produced by Union states, creating another reason for the British to avoid supporting the Confederacy.

The Role of Foreign Intervention in the Confederacy

• Successful revolutions, like the American Revolution, often succeeded due to foreign intervention.
• The South hoped for foreign intervention but did not receive it, contributing to its loss.
• European ruling classes were sympathetic to the Confederate cause.
• They disliked the American democratic model and favored the South’s semi-feudal, aristocratic social order.

British and French Public Opinion vs. Economic Interests

• In Britain and, to some extent, France, working-class people supported the North.
• Some had read Uncle Tom’s Cabin and hoped a Union victory would end slavery.
• British commoners, though unable to vote, could protest, which affected British government policies.
• Their opposition to official support for the South influenced the British government to avoid intervention.
• The British government was restrained from breaking the Union blockade by popular sentiment.
• Despite this, British textile mills relied on the South for 75% of their cotton supplies.
• The expected economic pressure, or “King Cotton,” failed to prompt British intervention.

AHC Note — Great Britain abolished slavery in 1834, and France abolished it in 1848. Military and political alliances with the Confederacy would have been problematic for either nation.

Factors Limiting British Support for the South

• At first, the South’s cotton supply was plentiful due to high exports in 1857–1860.
• British warehouses were stocked with surplus cotton when the war started.
• The economic impact, with thousands of workers losing jobs, was not felt until about a year and a half into the war.
• By then, Lincoln had announced the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing slaves, which reduced British support for the Confederacy.
• British “wage slaves” were unlikely to support a war that would defend Southern slaveowners.

Relief from the Cotton Famine in Britain

• The effects of the cotton shortage in Britain were mitigated through several measures:
• Americans sent shipments of foodstuffs to relieve hunger among unemployed workers.
• As Union armies advanced, they captured or purchased cotton, which was then shipped to Britain.
• The Confederates managed to run a limited amount of cotton through the Union naval blockade.
• Cotton production in Egypt and India increased in response to high prices.
• England’s booming war industries, supplying both the North and South, helped reduce unemployment.

Northern Agricultural Advantages and British Dependency

• Northern agriculture proved more advantageous than Southern cotton during the war.
• The North experienced ideal weather and produced abundant grain crops, aided by McCormick’s mechanical reaper.
• Meanwhile, Britain faced a series of poor harvests and needed to import large quantities of grain from America.
• America’s grain was both cheap and plentiful.
• Breaking the blockade for cotton would have led Britain to war with the North and risk losing access to this crucial grain supply.
• Consequently, British unemployment seemed preferable to widespread hunger.
• A Northern journal celebrated this advantage with the sentiment: “Wave the stars and stripes high o’er us, Let every freeman sing … Old King Cotton’s dead and buried; brave young Corn is King.”

The Decisiveness of Diplomacy

The war still presented the Union with significant issues in foreign affairs. The “Trent Affair” of 1861 involved a Union ship intercepting the British mail ship, Trent, and seizing two Confederate diplomats heading to Europe. This action caused a strong British reaction and led to preparations for potential conflict. Lincoln chose to release the prisoners, ending the situation peacefully. However, Confederate raiders, like the Alabama, created more problems. These ships, built and armed in Britain, targeted Union shipping, capturing over 60 ships and distracting Union naval resources; because of this, tensions between the Union and Britain continued. The Alabama was destroyed in 1864, but British-built raiders continued to attack Union ships. As the war neared its end, British policy shifted toward neutrality.

Diplomatic Challenges During the Civil War

• The Civil War presented a crucial diplomatic challenge for America.
• The South continuously hoped for foreign intervention.
• European rulers sought to exploit America’s internal conflict for their own advantage.

The Trent Affair

• The Trent Affair was a significant diplomatic crisis with Britain in late 1861.
• A Union warship operating north of Cuba stopped the British mail steamer Trent.
• The Union ship forcibly removed two Confederate diplomats who were on their way to Europe.

Reactions and Resolution of the Trent Affair

• The Trent Affair provoked strong outrage in Britain, which felt insulted by the Union’s actions.
• There was a surge in war preparations, with British troops moving to Canada and military bands playing “I Wish I Was in Dixie.”
• The London Foreign Office prepared an ultimatum demanding the release of the prisoners and an apology.
• Slow communication between Britain and the United States allowed tensions to subside.
• Lincoln eventually viewed the Trent prisoners as a diplomatic burden and chose to release them, reportedly saying, “One war at a time.”

The Crisis Over Confederate Commerce-Raiders

• A major diplomatic issue with Britain involved the construction of Confederate raiders, like the Alabama.
• These vessels were built in Britain but avoided being classified as warships by leaving their shipyards unarmed and acquiring weapons elsewhere.
• The Alabama escaped in 1862 to the Portuguese Azores, where it armed itself with weaponry and crew from two British ships.
• Although Alabama flew the Confederate Flag and was commanded by Confederates, its crew was primarily British, and it never docked in a Confederate port.
• Consequently, Britain became a key naval base for the Confederacy.

Impact of the Alabama on Union Shipping

• The Alabama wreaked havoc on Union merchant ships, capturing over 60 vessels.
• It operated from Europe to the Far East, setting many Union ships ablaze.
• British shippers benefitted from the disruption, while the Union had to divert naval resources from its blockade to pursue the Alabama.
• The Alabama was eventually destroyed in 1864 by a Union ship off the coast of France.

Continued Impact of British-Built Confederate Raiders

• The issue of British-built Confederate raiders persisted even after the Alabama was destroyed.
• American minister Charles Francis Adams influenced Britain to reconsider its stance on building such ships.
• In 1863, Britain seized a raider being built for the Confederacy, indicating a shift toward neutrality.
• Despite these efforts, Confederate destroyers, mainly British-built, captured over 250 Union ships, significantly damaging American shipping.
• Northern resentment grew, and some leaders discussed the possibility of retaliating by seizing Canada after the war.

Foreign Flare-ups

Tensions with Great Britain, France, and Mexico rose and fell during the war over several issues and even played a minor role in the establishment of a united Canada in 1867. The most significant threat came from France, which installed Archduke Maximilian as emperor of Mexico, violating the Monroe Doctrine. After the war, Secretary of State William H. Seward pressured France, leading to the withdrawal of French forces in 1867 and Maximilian’s execution.

The Laird Rams and Anglo-American Relations

• The Laird Rams, two Confederate warships being built in Britain, were a threat due to their iron rams and large-caliber guns.
• These ships, if delivered, could have breached Union blockades and targeted Northern cities, and lead to a broader conflict with Britain.
• In response, American Minister Charles Francis Adams warned Britain that releasing the Laird Rams would mean war.
• At the last moment, the British government purchased the ships for the Royal Navy, averting a major diplomatic crisis.
• Britain acknowledged its role in operating the Alabama and agreed in 1871 to arbitrate the dispute, compensating American claimants $15.5 million for damages caused by Confederate raiders.

Confederate Raids and Irish-American Sentiment

• Southern agents in Canada plotted to incite trouble in the North, with one raid into Vermont resulting in bank robberies and an American casualty.
• Irish-Americans, who were anti-British, directed their anger at Canada, forming small “armies” and launching invasions in 1866 and 1870.
• The Canadian government condemned the U.S. for not preventing these invasions.
• The U.S. struggled to act decisively due to the influence of Irish-American voters who supported the raids.

Formation of Canada and Its Context

• The Civil War indirectly contributed to the creation of a united Canada.
• In 1867, the British Parliament established the Dominion of Canada, uniting the Canadian provinces.
• This move was partly motivated by a desire to strengthen Canada politically and symbolically against potential American aggression.

French Intervention in Mexico

• In 1863, Emperor Napoleon III of France sent a French army to occupy Mexico City.
• In 1864, he installed Austrian Archduke Maximilian as emperor of Mexico, creating a “Puppet Regime.”
• This intervention was a clear violation of the Monroe Doctrine, which opposed European colonization or interference in the Western Hemisphere.
• Napoleon hoped that a weakened Union might be unable to enforce the Monroe Doctrine due to its internal conflict.

AHC Note — A Puppet Regime is a government controlled by another country’s government or an outside authority.

End of French Intervention in Mexico

• During the war, the North adopted a cautious stance toward France, avoiding direct confrontation.
• After the war ended in 1865, Secretary of State William H. Seward, backed by the Union’s military strength, prepared to challenge French actions.
• Recognizing the futility of his intervention, Napoleon III withdrew French forces in 1867.
• Archduke Maximilian, abandoned by the French, was captured and executed by a Mexican firing squad.

President Davis Versus President Lincoln

The Confederate government had weaknesses due to its Constitution, which did not prevent secession. The emphasis on States’ Rights undermined central authority, making it difficult for President Jefferson Davis to coordinate military operations. Some states even considered secession from the Confederacy. Davis struggled to lead at times and clashed with his Congress. In contrast, Lincoln overcame military setbacks and criticism that ultimately put the Union in a position to win the war.

Confederate Government Weaknesses

• The Confederate Constitution, though similar to the Union’s, had a critical flaw: it did not effectively prevent future secession by its states.
• Jefferson Davis, who advocated for a strong central government, faced strong opposition from states’ rights proponents.
• The Confederate government struggled to persuade state troops to serve outside their own states, complicating military operations.
• Some Southern leaders, such as the governor of Georgia, were so committed to states’ rights that they nearly sought to secede from the Confederacy itself.
• The emphasis on states’ rights weakened the Confederacy more than any external military threat.

President Jefferson Davis’s Challenges

• Jefferson Davis was known for his sharp features and serious demeanor. He was often described as tense, humorless, legalistic, and stubborn.
• Despite being an eloquent speaker and capable administrator, Davis struggled with personal popularity and frequently clashed with the Confederate Congress.
• At various times, there were discussions about impeaching him due to his difficulties in leadership.
• Unlike Abraham Lincoln, Davis was somewhat imperious and tended to challenge rather than align with public opinion.
• Davis suffered from neuralgia and other nervous disorders, including a tic, which was exacerbated by his intense involvement in both civil and military matters.
• His dedication and integrity were undeniable, but the immense challenges he faced as leader of the Confederacy may have been beyond the capacity of any single individual.

President Abraham Lincoln’s Strengths

• Lincoln faced his own set of difficulties but managed them with relative success compared to Davis. The North benefitted from an established, financially stable government with international recognition.
• As a less experienced politician from the prairie, Lincoln demonstrated a remarkable ability to grow and adapt during the war. His flexibility contrasted with Davis’s rigidity.
• Known for his humor and storytelling, Lincoln could ease tensions during critical moments. His approachability and patience helped him lead effectively.
• He developed a keen ability to interpret and guide shifting public opinion, balancing firmness with tact.
• Lincoln’s leadership was characterized by his commitment to preserving the Union and his benevolence towards the South. He showed considerable forbearance towards critical colleagues.
• He often used self-deprecating humor and humility in response to criticism from Secretary of War Edwin Stanton.

Limitations on Wartime Liberties

At times, Lincoln took extraordinary measures to preserve the Union. However, he pushed boundaries, including declaring a blockade of Confederate ports, expanding the U.S. Army, allocating funds without Congressional approval, and suspending Habeas Corpus. Ultimately, these actions were accepted by Congress and the public, and most backlash was swept aside at the end of the war due to his assassination. Meanwhile, Jefferson Davis was beset by regional differences due to the South’s commitment to States’ Rights.

Lincoln’s Pragmatic Approach to Leadership

• Upon his inauguration, Abraham Lincoln took a solemn oath to uphold the Constitution. However, faced with the exigencies of war, he found it necessary to stretch the boundaries of that document.
• Lincoln’s pragmatic decisions, though arguably unconstitutional, were made with the intention of preserving the Union. His actions, though seemingly contradictory to his oath, were driven by the urgency of saving the nation.
• He recognized that preserving the United States was paramount and accepted that some constitutional flexibilities were required to achieve that goal.
• Lincoln’s approach demonstrated his practical understanding that in times of crisis, extraordinary measures might be necessary to ensure the survival and unity of the country.

Congressional and Public Reactions to Lincoln’s Actions

• During the Civil War, Congress largely accepted or validated Lincoln’s questionable actions, a common occurrence in times of national crisis.
• Despite accusations of being a “Simple Susan Tyrant,” Lincoln believed that his extraordinary measures were temporary and necessary for preserving the Union.
• He expressed the view that once the immediate crisis had passed, there would be no need for the stringent measures he had implemented. As he remarked in 1863, a man with a “temporary illness” would not continue taking bitter medicines for the rest of his life once he was well.

Lincoln’s Extraordinary Measures During the Civil War

• At the onset of the Civil War, with Congress not in session, President Lincoln took decisive action to manage the crisis.
• He declared a blockade of Confederate ports, a measure that was later upheld by the Supreme Court despite its initial lack of congressional approval.
• Lincoln increased the size of the Federal army unilaterally, an action typically reserved for Congress under the Constitution. This increase was subsequently ratified by Congress.
• He directed the Secretary of the Treasury to advance $2 million to three private citizens for military purposes without congressional appropriation or security, a move that contravened constitutional provisions.
• Lincoln suspended the Writ of Habeas Corpus, allowing for the arrest of anti-Unionists without trial. This action challenged a ruling by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, who had asserted that only Congress could suspend Habeas Corpus.

Lincoln’s Controversial Measures in the Border States

• The Lincoln administration implemented “supervised” voting in the Border States, where voters were escorted between lines of armed troops, potentially intimidating them.
• Federal authorities suspended certain newspapers and arrested their editors on charges of obstructing the war effort.

Jefferson Davis and States’ Rights

• Davis faced significant challenges in exercising centralized authority due to strong states’ rights advocates.
• Intense localism hampered effective governance; for example, in Petersburg, Virginia, local resistance prevented the joining of crucial railroad tracks, impacting military logistics.
• The South’s dedication to preserving local rights contributed to its ultimate defeat in the conflict.

Volunteers and Draftees: North and South

In 1863, the U.S. Congress introduced the first Federal Conscription Act (Enrollment Act) due to declining volunteer numbers. The law disproportionately affected the poor, as wealthier individuals could avoid service by paying $300 or hiring substitutes, earning the label “three-hundred-dollar men.” This led to resentment and draft riots, particularly in Democratic strongholds like New York City, where violence and anti-black sentiment were prominent. The Confederacy turned to conscription early but faced similar challenges with exemptions for the wealthy and slaveowners.

Conscription and Its Discontents

• At first, Northern armies were composed of volunteers, with each state given a quota based on its population.
• In 1863, as volunteer numbers declined, Congress implemented the first Federal conscription law in U.S. history.
• The law disproportionately affected the poor, as wealthier individuals could hire substitutes or pay $300 to avoid service, leading to the term “three-hundred-dollar men” for those who avoided the draft.
• Many draftees resented the law, feeling that it forced them into service or demanded a hefty price for exemption.

AHC Note — The Enrollment Act (1863) established procedures for implementing federally mandated drafts in Congressional districts that did not meet prescribed quotas for volunteer enlistments during the Civil War.

Draft Riots and Northern Discontent

• The draft was particularly unpopular in Democratic strongholds like New York City.
• In 1863, a significant riot erupted, driven largely by underprivileged and anti-black Irish Americans who opposed both the draft and Lincoln.
• The riot led to widespread violence, including arson and looting, with many lives lost and black individuals lynched.
• Conscription also faced resistance and minor riots in other Northern areas.

AHC Note — Implementation of the Enrollment Act led to violence. In New York City, two days after the first draft lottery on July 11, 1863, an angry mob, consisting mostly of Irish immigrants, attacked and burned the Assistant Provost Marshal’s office in the Ninth District, sparking four days of rioting (July 13–16). As word of the incident spread, the size of the mob grew and started burning prominent buildings in the city before and then attacking African American residents. By the time New York police, aided by the State Militia, restored order on July 16, 119 people had died — mostly blacks — and thousands suffered injuries. The rioters beat and lynched 11 African American men.

Union Troop Enlistment and Bounties

• Over 90 percent of Union troops were volunteers, driven by strong social and patriotic pressures.
• As the number of able-bodied men dwindled, Federal, state, and local authorities offered generous bounties to encourage enlistment.
• An enterprising volunteer could earn more than $1,000 through these enlistment incentives.

Bounty Brokers and Desertion

• The rise of “bounty brokers” and “substitute brokers” took advantage of the lucrative enlistment bonuses offered.
• These brokers recruited from poorhouses in the British Isles and Western Europe, often using alcohol to persuade immigrants to enlist.
• Some recruits, known as “bounty jumpers,” would enlist, desert, and then enlist again in different locations to collect multiple bounties. One man did this 32 times.
• Desertion was a widespread issue, with around 200,000 deserters recorded in the Union army and a similar problem affecting Confederate forces.

Southern Conscription and Manpower Challenges

• Initially, the South relied heavily on volunteers for its military needs.
• Due to its smaller population compared to the North, the South exhausted its pool of volunteers more quickly.
• The Confederacy resorted to conscription earlier than the Union, beginning in April 1862, almost a year before the North.
• The South implemented broad conscription measures, including individuals from ages seventeen to fifty, reflecting the dire need for soldiers.

Injustices in Confederate Conscription

• Confederate draft regulations allowed wealthier individuals to evade service by hiring substitutes or paying for exemptions.
• Slaveowners or overseers with 20 or more slaves were granted exemptions, leading to further resentment.
• Many less affluent Southerners felt the draft was unfair, labeling it as “a rich man’s war but a poor man’s fight.”
• Although there were no large-scale draft riots like those in New York City, Confederate conscription agents avoided areas with dissenting mountain whites, who were often labeled as “Tories,” “traitors,” and “Yankee-lovers.”

The Economic Stresses of War

The Union effectively managed its finances, but Congress introduced excise taxes on tobacco and alcohol and the first Federal Income Tax. The Treasury issued $450 million in “Greenbacks” — paper money — that was volatile, peaking at 39 cents on the dollar. The government raised over $2.6 billion through bond sales, marketed by Jay Cooke and Company, which would create problems in the post-war era. The 1863 National Banking System standardized currency and supported bond sales, replacing unreliable bank notes and laying the groundwork for the Federal Reserve System, which was established in 1913. The Union blockade of Southern ports slowly created financial problems for the Confederacy, which responded by issuing bonds, raising taxes, and printing paper money — all of which contributed to massive inflation by the end of the war.

Northern Financial Management During the Civil War

• The North had a significant financial advantage due to its wealth, which helped it overcome economic challenges more effectively than the South.
• Congress increased excise taxes on tobacco and alcohol to generate revenue.
• An income tax was introduced for the first time in U.S. history.

Northern Revenue Sources During the Civil War

• Customs receipts were a crucial source of revenue for the North.
• In early 1861, Congress passed the Morrill Tariff Act, increasing duties from the low rates of the Tariff of 1857 to about the moderate level of the Walker Tariff of 1846.
• Later, the rates were significantly increased due to the demands of war.
• The tariff increases were intended to raise additional revenue and offer protection to manufacturers, many of whom were Republicans.
• As a result, the tariff was associated with the Republican Party.

Greenbacks and Currency Inflation in the North

• The Treasury issued nearly $450 million in Greenback Paper Money during the Civil War.
• The value of Greenbacks fluctuated with the success of Union military operations.
• At one point, Greenbacks were worth only 39 cents on the gold dollar.
• The depreciation of Greenbacks led to indirect taxation of holders as inflation eroded the value of the currency.

AHC Note — Greenbacks were “Fiat Money” — government-issued currency that was not backed by a physical commodity, like gold or silver. The use of Greenbacks led to a decrease in the use of hard money as currency, which caused problems after the war and during the Gilded Age.

Federal Borrowing During the Civil War

• The Treasury raised $2,621,916,786 through the sale of bonds.
• These bonds bore interest and were payable at a later date.
• The Treasury marketed its bonds through Jay Cooke and Company, which earned a commission of three-eighths of 1 percent on sales.
• Bankers appealed to people’s sense of profit and Patriotism to sell the bonds.

The National Banking System and Its Impact

• The National Banking System was authorized by Congress in 1863.
• It was intended to stimulate the sale of government bonds and establish a standardized bank-note currency.
• Before this, the U.S. was flooded with depreciated “rag money” from unreliable banks.
• Banks that joined the system could buy government bonds and issue stable paper money backed by them.
• The National Banking Act was a significant step towards a unified banking network following the dismantling of the Bank of the United States in 1836.
• This system continued until it was replaced by the Federal Reserve System in 1913.

Financial Challenges of the Confederacy

• The South relied on customs duties, which were cut off by the Union blockade.
• The Confederacy issued nearly $400 million in bonds.
• Taxes were increased, including a 10% levy on farm produce.
• Despite these efforts, States’ Rights advocates resisted direct taxation by the Confederate government, resulting in only about 1 percent of total income being raised this way.
• The Confederate government printed over $1 billion in paper money.
• Runaway inflation occurred, with the Confederate dollar sinking to 1.6 cents at the end of the war.
• The Confederacy experienced a 9,000% inflation rate, compared to 80% for the Union.

The North’s Economic Boom

The Union prospered as Northern factories flourished with help from the Morrill Tariff Act, though inflation and rising prices affected workers. Manufacturers and businesspeople were successful, and economic strength and industrial growth continued after the war. Both North and South faced issues created by speculators and corruption, but the North’s larger resources made corruption more visible. Despite issues, economic expansion, new machinery, and innovations like mechanical reapers and standardized clothing sizes bolstered Northern prosperity and industrial advancement.

Northern Wartime Prosperity

• The North prospered during the war despite the high costs.
• New factories emerged, protected by increased tariffs from the Morrill Tariff Act.
• While inflation and high prices affected day laborers and white-collar workers, manufacturers and businesspeople profited.
• The North’s economic strength and industrial growth continued after the war, contributing to its overall prosperity.

Emergence of a Millionaire Class

• The war led to the creation of a millionaire class in America, a phenomenon that had not been seen before.
• Many of these newly wealthy individuals were characterized by noisy, gaudy, and extravagant lifestyles.
• The presence of such wealth and extravagance highlighted the presence of greed and gluttony amid the sacrifices of war.
• Both the North and South experienced issues with speculators and corrupt practices, but it was more evident in the North due to its larger resources.

AHC Note — This extravagance contributed to the Gilded Age, which started in the 1870s and lasted into the early 1900s. It was a time of extreme opulence for the upper class while poverty increased in the lower classes, especially in cities and urban areas.

Examples of Northern Wartime Corruption

• Dishonest agents sold aged and blind horses to the government.
• Northern manufacturers provided poor-quality goods, such as shoes with cardboard soles and uniforms made from recycled wool.
• The term “shoddy millionaires” was used to describe those profiting from wartime schemes.

Economic Expansion Through New Machinery

• New laborsaving machinery helped the North’s economy grow despite losing manpower to the war.
• The sewing machine significantly improved the production of uniforms and military footwear.

Impact of War on Clothing Production

• Military needs and new machinery ended custom-tailored clothing production.
• Standard measurements were introduced, leading to the creation of “sizes” for garments.
• The use of standardized sizes continued in the civilian clothing industry.

Economic Impact of Mechanical Reapers

• Mechanical reapers numbered about 250,000 by 1865.
• They freed tens of thousands of farm boys for military service.
• Reapers produced large grain surpluses, weakening King Cotton’s dominance.
• The North used profits from grain to buy munitions and supplies from abroad.
• They contributed to Northern prosperity, helping the Union sustain the war effort.

Expansion and Industrial Growth During the War

• Petroleum gushers discovered in 1859 led to a rush to Pennsylvania.
• The petroleum industry emerged, creating a new class of wealthy individuals.
• Approximately 300,000 people continued westward migration during the war.
• Major attractions included free gold nuggets and land under the Homestead Act of 1862.
• The Federal draft agents also encouraged westward movement.
• The only major Northern industry severely impacted was the ocean-carrying trade, affected by raiders like the Alabama.

Women’s Expanding Roles During the Civil War

• The war created new job opportunities for women.
• Women took over many jobs left by men who went to fight.
• In Washington, D.C., 500 women worked as clerks, with over 100 in the Treasury Department.
• The demand for military supplies and the use of sewing machines increased female industrial employment.
• Before the war, one in four industrial workers was female; during the war, the ratio increased to one in three.

Women’s Contributions and Roles During the Civil War

• Over 400 women disguised themselves as male soldiers to fight.
• Some women carried out spy missions; one was executed for smuggling gold.
• Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell organized the U.S. Sanitary Commission to aid Union armies.
• The commission trained nurses, collected medical supplies, and equipped hospitals.
• Women gained organizational skills and confidence through commission work.
• Clara Barton and Dorothea Dix improved nursing standards.
• Sally Tompkins ran a Richmond infirmary and was awarded the rank of Captain by Jefferson Davis.
• Women organized bazaars and fairs to raise money for widows, orphans, and disabled soldiers.

AHC Note — Clara Barton was an acclaimed humanitarian who is popularly known as the “Angel of the Battlefield.” She was the founder and first president of the American Red Cross, serving from 1881 to 1904.

AHC Note — Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell was the first woman to earn a medical degree in the United States when she graduated from New York’s Geneva Medical College in 1849.

A Crushed Cotton Kingdom

The war crushed the Southern economy, as wealth dropped from 30% of the national total in 1860 to 12% by 1870. Before the war, Southern income was about two-thirds of Northern income; after the war, it fell to two-fifths, partially due to the devastation caused by Union forces on infrastructure, especially railroads. Following the war, the North eclipsed the South economically and politically. From a social standpoint, many Southerners felt like second-class citizens compared to their Northern counterparts, leading to harsh feelings and anger that were often directed toward the lower class.

Economic Impact of the Civil War on the South

• The South’s wealth dropped from 30% of the national total in 1860 to 12% in 1870.
• Before the war, Southern income was about two-thirds of Northern income; after the war, it was reduced to two-fifths of Northern income.
• The blockade and destruction during the war severely harmed the Southern economy.
• The South’s attempt at independence had a harsh and lasting economic impact.

Collapse of Southern Transportation and Resources

• The South’s transportation system fell into disarray.
• Railroads were dismantled, with rails pulled from less-used lines to repair main ones.
• Items like window weights were repurposed as bullets.
• Gourds were used as substitutes for dishes.
• Pins became so rare that they were loaned reluctantly.

Southern Resourcefulness and Spirit

• The South demonstrated remarkable resourcefulness and spirit until the end of the war.
• Women played a crucial role in maintaining morale among their menfolk.
• A proposal to cut and sell long hair abroad was made but not adopted, partly due to the blockade.
• Southern women took pride in sacrificing luxuries like silks and satins.

Post-War Economic Shift: North vs. South

• By the end of the war, Northern industrialists triumphed over the Southern landowners.
• The weakened South left the North free to pursue its economic goals, benefiting from high tariffs and other advantages.
• Northern manufacturing leaders, driving the Industrial Revolution, gained increased control over American economic and political life.
• The Southern agrarian society, which had previously limited the North’s industrial ambitions, was now eclipsed by industrial capitalism.
• The South in 1865 was left with few resources beyond amputees, war heroes, ruins, and memories.

Additional Resources for Girding for War: The North and the South

The notes on this page are based on the 16th edition of The American Pageant. We have expanded on the source material with additional details, corrections, and links to Encyclopedia Entries that explain topics in more detail. For more information, including terms and definitions, see the following:

• Advanced Placement United States History (APUSH) Units
• The South and the Slavery Controversy (1793–1860)
• Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy (1841–1848)
• Renewing the Sectional Struggle (1848–1854)
• Drifting Toward Disunion (1854–1861)
• Girding for War: The North and the South (1861–1865)
• The Furnace of Civil War (1861–1865)
• The Ordeal of Reconstruction (1865–1877)