Overview
As Europeans spread through North America during the Colonial Era, they interacted with Native American Indian tribes primarily through trade networks. The most significant trade network in North America revolved around the Fur Trade.
Along the Atlantic Coast, around the Great Lakes, and down through the Ohio Country, the Fur Trade played a significant role in cultural interactions. French traders often adopted Indian customs and married into tribes, while the Dutch, Swedes, and English treated the Indians more as business associates.
Unfortunately, Europeans often looked at the Indians as primitive, referring to them as “savages,” without understanding their culture, traditions, or concept of land ownership. Because of this, Europeans were quick to enslave Indians or try to convert them to some form of Christianity and assimilate them.
The Europeans also carried diseases with them from the Old World to the New World, which devastated the Indian population. This included the Great Dying (1616–1619) that swept through New England and left large portions of the region unpopulated by the time the Pilgrims arrived in 1620.
Tension rose between the two groups and disagreements or misunderstandings often led to violence. Some of the earliest conflicts involving Europeans and Indians were the Beaver Wars the three Anglo-Powhatan Wars, Kieft’s War, and the Esopus Wars.
It must be understood that in many of these conflicts, Indians often sided with Europeans against other Indians. However, when conflicts were resolved, Europeans usually took control of Indian territory, giving them more room to expand further into North America. Indian tribes on the losing side of the war not only lost their ancestral hunting lands and farmland but were often sold into slavery — either to European Slave Traders or other Indian tribes.
By the middle of the 1600s, three colonial empires had taken shape — New Spain, New France, and the English Colonies. Each of them vied with the Indians for control of North America, including the lucrative Fur Trade.
New Spain
New Spain was the Spanish colonial empire in North America and South America during the 16th to 19th centuries. It covered a vast region including present-day Mexico, Central America, the southwestern United States, and parts of the Caribbean.
New Spain played a crucial role in the Spanish Empire’s economic and political power, serving as a source of wealth through mining, agriculture, and trade.
However, the cultural interactions between the Spanish and the Indians usually led to enslavement, exploitation, and the imposition of Spanish culture and institutions on the Indians. This played an important part in the Pueblo Revolt (1680) or Popé’s Rebellion, which forced the Spanish out of New Mexico.
New France
New France was the French colonial empire in North America from the 16th to the 18th centuries. It included regions such as present-day Canada, the Great Lakes, and parts of the Mississippi River Valley.
The French were primarily focused on the Fur Trade and establishing friendly relations with Indians. However, the French also understood the value of having alliances with the Indians and used this to their advantage.
French missionaries, known as Jesuits, often created and managed the relationships with the Indians — and sent Indians to attack English settlements in the northern part of New England. These attacks were an important part of the conflicts between England and France for control of the Great Lakes, Quebec, Acadia, and New England — known as the French and Indian Wars.
English Colonies
After failing to establish a colony on Roanoke Island in the late 1500s, the English established their first permanent colony at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. Growth and development were slow at first, but still led to interactions with the Powhatan Confederacy. The relationship was often tenuous and led to periods of war between the colonists and the Indians.
Thirteen years later, in 1620, the Pilgrims settled at Plymouth and made one of the first peace treaties between Europeans and Indians. Within a decade, upwards of 20,000 Puritans emigrated to New England, settling in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. They also settled as far north as Maine.
It was in New England that the interactions between the English and the Indians were the most destructive. The desire of the English for more land and control of the Fur Trade helped cause the Pequot War (1634–1638) and King Philip’s War (1675–1678), which devastated both Indian tribes and English settlements.
Intercolonial Wars for Control of North America
After the English took complete control of New Amsterdam in 1674, Dutch and Swedish settlers were incorporated into the English Colonies. The French, English, and Spanish were the three powers left to vie for control of North America.
The political and social landscape of North America became more unstable as European wars extended into the New World. In these conflicts, Indians were usually allied with either the French or English, depending on who they thought would win or benefit them the most. The introduction of European firearms significantly changed the dynamics of the relationship between Europeans and Indians.
The major conflicts that shaped New France, the English Colonies, and their interactions with Indians that took place before 1754 were:
- King William’s War (1688–1699)
- Queen Anne’s War (1702–1713)
- King George’s War (1744–1748)
Each of these was part of a larger war that started in Europe and spread to North America. The final conflict for control of North America started in 1754 and is simply known as the French and Indian War.
Another war, of a much smaller scale, was fought between Spain and England in the Caribbean. Known as the War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739–1748), it carried over into Georgia and Florida.
By this time the French, English, and Spanish controlled the Atlantic Coast, from Newfoundland to Florida.
APUSH 2.5 Review Video
This video from Heimler’s History provides an excellent overview of APUSH 2.5. You can also check out our APUSH Guide provides a look at all Units and Topics in the APUSH Curriculum.
APUSH 2.5 Review Terms and Notes for Unit 2 Key Concepts and APUSH Themes
The terms and definitions that follow are related to the Key Concepts for Unit 2 and are broken into sections by APUSH Themes. Within the explanations of APUSH 2.5 Terms are links to content on American History Central that should provide a more comprehensive understanding of each topic.
Unit 2 Key Concepts
Key Concept 2.1 — Europeans developed a variety of colonization and migration patterns, influenced by different imperial goals, cultures, and the varied North American environments where they settled, and they competed with each other and American Indians for resources.
Key Concept 2.2 — The British colonies participated in political, social, cultural, and economic exchanges with Great Britain that encouraged both stronger bonds with Britain and resistance to Britain’s control.
APUSH Themes
- American and National Identity
- Work, Exchange, and Technology
- Migration and Settlement
- Politics and Power
- America in the World
- Geography and the Environment
- Culture and Society
Work, Exchange, and Technology — Labor Systems
Fur Trade
The Fur Trade in Colonial America was a vital economic activity involving the exchange of animal pelts for goods, particularly with Native American tribes. Europeans, including the French, Dutch, and English, established trading posts and trade agreements with various Indian tribes to acquire furs, which were highly sought after in Europe. The Fur Trade significantly shaped colonial economies and contributed to the westward exploration and expansion of Europeans in North America.
Politics and Power — Native American Indian Confederacies
Iroquois Confederacy
The Iroquois Confederacy, also known as the Haudenosaunee or Six Nations, was a powerful alliance of six Native American tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. Formed before European contact, the Confederacy was known for its sophisticated political system and influential role in the Fur Trade and colonial affairs.
Powhatan Confederacy
The Powhatan Confederacy was a coalition of Indian tribes in the Chesapeake Region, led by Chief Powhatan at the time of English colonization. Comprising over 30 tribes, the Confederacy controlled much of the land along the Virginia coast. The Powhatan Confederacy played a significant role in the early years of the Jamestown Colony, engaging in both trade and conflict with English settlers. The marriage of Powhatan’s daughter, Pocahontas, to English settler John Rolfe temporarily eased tensions between the two groups.
Politics and Power — Military Conflicts
Beaver Wars (1609–1701)
The Beaver Wars, also known as the Iroquois Wars, were a series of conflicts that took place from 1609–1701 between the Iroquois Confederacy and various Indian tribes, as they fought for control of the Fur Trade. The majority of the conflict took place in the Great Lakes Region and the Ohio Valley. Some consider the start of the Beaver Wars to be the Battle of Lake Champlain (1609), which saw Samuel de Champlain and his Algonquin allies fight the Iroquois Confederacy. The wars had significant effects on regional power, trade networks, indigenous populations, and Euro-Indian alliances, and ended in 1701 with the Peace of Montreal.
Anglo-Powhatan Wars (1609–1646)
The Anglo-Powhatan Wars were fought between English settlers in Virginia and the Powhatan Confederacy. The First Anglo-Powhatan War (1690–1614) saw sporadic hostilities and ended with the “Peace of Pocahontas” — the marriage of John Rolfe and Pocahontas. The Second Anglo-Powhatan War (1622–1632) started with a brutal attack by the Powhatan on Jamestown and ended with a treaty that established a border between English and Powhatan territory. The Third Anglo-Powhatan War (1644–1646) started with another attack on English settlements and ended with the Powhatans forced to live on reservations and pay an annual fee to the English.
Pequot War (1634-1638)
The Pequot War was the first war between the English colonists and Indian tribes living in the New England Colonies. A group of English traders was killed and Massachusetts responded by attacking the Pequot in Connecticut. The Pequot retaliated by attacking Connecticut settlements. Over the course of the war, Connecticut and Massachusetts Bay, along with warriors from various tribes, including the Narragansett, virtually eliminated the Pequot. After the fighting ended, a treaty was signed that gave Connecticut control of the Connecticut River Valley and sold the surviving Pequot Indians into slavery.
Kieft’s War (1643–1645)
Kieft’s War, also known as the Wappinger War, was a conflict in the mid-17th century in the Dutch colony of New Netherland — present-day New York. The war took place from 1643 to 1645 and was characterized by clashes between Dutch settlers and several indigenous groups, including the Wappinger Confederacy.
Peach Tree War (1655)
The Peach Tree War, also known as the Peach War, was a conflict that took place in 1655 between Dutch and Swedish colonists and Native American tribes, particularly the Susquehannock, in New Netherland and New Sweden. The Susquehannocks drove the colonists from some of their settlements, including Staten Island, forcing them to move to Long Island. Peter Stuyvesant eventually negotiated the right to resettle the area between the Hudson River and Hackensack River.
Esopus Wars (1659–1663)
The Esopus Wars were a series of conflicts between Dutch settlers and the Esopus people, Lenape-speaking Indians, in the mid-17th century in the Dutch colony of New Netherland. The first war, known as the First Esopus War, occurred in 1659-1660, while the second war, the Second Esopus War, took place in 1663-1664. The wars were marked by violence, raids, and battles as the Dutch sought to control territory along the Hudson River. The conflict resulted in the displacement of the Esopus people from their homeland.
King Philip’s War (1675–1676)
After three Wampanoag men were executed by Plymouth Colony in 1675, English settlements in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Maine were attacked during King Philip’s War. The New England Confederation responded by calling out militia forces and attacking Narragansett settlements in Rhode Island. The Wampanoag and Narragansett launched a counter-attack on the New England colonies and burned Providence. The New England Confederation forces retaliated and overwhelmed King Philip’s forces. King Philip was killed at his stronghold, Mount Hope, on August 12, 1676. The New England Confederation and its Indian allies won the war but at a great cost to both sides. The Wampanoag and Narragansett were almost exterminated. English villages and towns suffered severe damage and roughly a tenth of the men who fought in the war died.
Susquehannock War (1675–1677)
The Susquehannock War, which occurred from 1675 to 1677, was a conflict between the Susquehannock Tribe and English settlers in the Maryland and Virginia colonies. Tensions flared over due to competition over land and resources, and violent incidents between settlers and the Susquehannocks. The conflict intensified when Virginia and Maryland militia forces attacked a Susquehannock fort, leading to a series of brutal encounters. This war contributed to the hostilities that led to Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia.
Pueblo Revolt (1680)
The Pueblo Revolt, also known as Popé’s Rebellion, took place in 1680 in the Spanish Colony of New Mexico. Led by the Pueblo leader Popé, indigenous Pueblo communities rose in protest of Spanish colonization and religious oppression. The revolt aimed to drive the Spanish out of the region and restore the religious practices of the Pueblos. The Pueblo Revolt resulted in the temporary expulsion of Spanish authorities from New Mexico and a period of indigenous self-governance before Spanish reoccupation in 1692.
King William’s War (1688–1699)
King William’s War was the First Intercolonial War between England and France in North America and took place while the War of Grand Alliance was being fought in Europe. While England and France were vying for control in Europe, the British Colonies, New France, and the Indian Tribes were trying to gain control of the fur trade in North America — and so were the Native Tribes. The fighting in New England was often sporadic but brutal in nature. The English and French both used their Indian allies to conduct raids on settlements. At one point, Massachusetts and New York both sent military expeditions into French territory, including one that invaded Canada for the purpose of taking Quebec. The War of Grand Alliance ended in 1697, but hostilities between the English and Indians continued until 1701.
Queen Anne’s War (1702–1713)
Queen Anne’s War was the Second Intercolonial War between England and France in North America and took place while the War of Spanish Succession was being fought in Europe. English and French colonial forces, along with their Native Allies, continued to conduct raids on settlements on the northern frontier of the American colonies. In 1704, the French and their Indian allies carried out a brutal attack on Deerfield, Massachusetts. The fighting spread to the south, where English forces from Carolina attacked Spanish forces in northwest Florida. While the war continued, England and Scotland agreed to the Act of Union, which created the United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. The war came to an end in 1713 when the Treaty of Utrecht was signed. In the agreement, the British gained Hudson’s Bay, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia (Acadia). France kept control of the Cape Breton Islands and the islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. However, the French also agreed to recognize the British relationship with the Iroquois.
War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739–1748)
The War of Jenkins’ Ear was partially the result of an incident that took place on April 9, 1731, where Spanish coast guard officers near Havana, Cuba accused Captain Robert Jenkins of smuggling. They punished him by cutting off his ear. War broke out between England and Spain in 1739, after Jenkins appeared in front of a committee of the House of Commons and showed them his ear, which led to public outrage. British merchants and the public demanded retribution. Spain was also upset with Britain for conducting excessive trade with its colonies in the Spanish West Indies. In 1740, General James Oglethorpe led forces from the Province of Georgia in an attack on Spanish Florida. The Spanish responded by invading Georgia in 1742 but were forced to withdraw to St. Augustine. Ultimately, the conflict between Britain and Spain was superseded by their involvement in King George’s War, which started in 1744.
King George’s War (1744–1748)
King George’s War was the Third Intercolonial War between England and France in North America and took place while the War of Austrian Succession was being fought in Europe. During the war, British forces under the command of Massachusetts Governor William Shirley were able to capture Fort Louisbourg — a French stronghold — at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. The fighting ended on October 18, 1748, when the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed by Britain, France, and the Dutch Republic. In the agreement, all territories were restored, including Fort Louisbourg being returned to New France.
French and Indian War (1754–1763)
The most significant of the intercolonial wars between the American Colonies and New France was the French and Indian War. It was the Fourth Intercolonial War and overlapped with the portion of the Seven Years’ War in Europe. The fighting in North America actually started two years before it did in Europe when George Washington led a surprise attack on a French expedition in Pennsylvania at the Battle of Jumonville Glen. In 1759, the British defeated the French outside of Quebec at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham and gained control of French territory in Canada, essentially ending the conflict in North America.
Politics and Power — People
John Eliot
John Eliot was a Puritan missionary known as the “Apostle to the Indians.” He dedicated his life to converting Indians to Christianity, translating the Bible into the Algonquin language, and establishing Praying Towns where converted Inidans could live according to Christian practices.
Thomas Hunt
Thomas Hunt was an English sea captain who kidnapped several Indians in 1614, including Squanto and sold them into slavery in Spain.
Massasoit
Massasoit was the chief of the Wampanoag Confederacy and contributed to the survival of the Plymouth Colony. In 1621, he established a peace treaty with the Pilgrims, ensuring protection and cooperation. This alliance helped the Pilgrims through their initial difficult years and contributed to the relatively peaceful relations between the Wampanoag and English settlers for several decades.
Metacom
Metacom, also known as King Philip, was a Wampanoag leader and the son of Massasoit. He led a coalition of Native American tribes in King Philip’s War (1675–1676) against New England colonists, aiming to resist colonial expansion and encroachment on Native lands. The war was one of the bloodiest conflicts in American colonial history and had devastating effects on both Indian and New England communities.
Pocahontas
Pocahontas, born around 1596, was the daughter of Powhatan, the paramount chief of the Powhatan Confederacy. Pocahontas is best known for her association with the English colonial settlement at Jamestown. According to legend, Pocahontas saved the life of John Smith. She later converted to Christianity, took the name Rebecca, and married John Rolfe in 1614, which helped establish peace between Jamestown and the Powhatans. Pocahontas traveled to England with Rolfe in 1616, where she was presented to English society as an example of a “civilized savage,” unfortunately she died in 1617 before returning to America.
Powhatan
Powhatan, also known as Wahunsenacawh, was the paramount chief of the Powhatan Confederacy in the Chesapeake Bay area during the early colonial period. He interacted with English settlers, including John Smith and the Jamestown colonists. His daughter Pocahontas famously played a role in the relationship between the Powhatan and the English.
John Rolfe
John Rolfe was an English settler in the Jamestown Colony, known for engineering the successful cultivation of a sweet-tasting straight of tobacco in Virginia, which became a crucial cash crop and economic foundation for the colony. In 1614, he married Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan.
John Smith
John Smith was an English adventurer and one of the leaders of the Jamestown colony in Virginia. He is famously associated with his interactions with the Powhatan Confederacy and his efforts to establish trade and relations with the local Native American populations. Smith’s leadership was crucial to the survival of the Jamestown settlement, which allowed the Virginia Company of London to continue its investment in Virginia.
Squanto
Squanto, also known as Tisquantum, was a member of the Patuxet Tribe that helped the Pilgrims after their arrival at Plymouth in 1620. Having learned English after being captured and taken to Europe, Squanto taught the Pilgrims essential survival skills such as cultivating corn, fishing, and negotiating with local tribes, significantly aiding their survival.
Thomas West, Lord De La Warr
Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, was an English nobleman and colonial Governor of Virginia. Appointed in 1610, he helped stabilize Jamestown in its early years, contributing to its survival. Lord De La Warr implemented strict discipline and organized labor among the colonists, helping to alleviate the “Starving Time” and restoring order to the struggling colony. His leadership provided much-needed support and direction, which contributed to the eventual success of the Virginia Colony. The state of Delaware, Delaware Bay, and the Delaware River, are named after him
Geography — Colonies and Regions
New England
New England refers to the northeastern region of North America that was colonized by English settlers during the 17th century. It encompassed present-day states such as Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Maine. The interactions between English colonists and Native American Indian communities, which included cooperation and conflict, played a key role in shaping the time period.
New France
New France was made up of French colonial possessions in North America during the 16th to 18th centuries, encompassing areas such as present-day Canada, the Great Lakes Region, and the Ohio Valley Region. The interactions between French Fur Traders, Jesuit Missionaries, and Native American Tribes created an exchange of ideas, goods, and religious beliefs.
New Spain
New Spain was the vast Spanish colonial territory in the Americas that included present-day Mexico, Central America, and parts of the southwestern United States. The cultural interactions between Spanish settlers, Native Americans, and African Slaves in this New Spain significantly impacted language, religion, and societal structures, resulting in a blend of customs and traditions.
Culture and Society — European Religion
Catholics
Catholics are adherents of the Roman Catholic Church, which traces its origins to the teachings of Jesus Christ and the apostles. Catholics hold to the belief in the authority of the Pope, the importance of sacraments, and the veneration of saints. The Catholic Church plays a significant role in religious and cultural landscapes worldwide.
Jesuit Priests
Jesuit priests, members of the Society of Jesus, were instrumental in facilitating cultural interactions between Europeans and Native Americans. They played a significant role in the Spanish mission system, attempting to convert indigenous populations to Christianity while also respecting their cultural practices. Jesuit priests sought to bridge the gap between different cultures and foster understanding.
Protestants
Protestants are Christians who adhere to faith traditions that emerged from the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. They rejected certain teachings of the Roman Catholic Church and emphasized personal faith, direct access to scripture, and the authority of the Bible. Protestantism encompasses various denominations, including Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anglicanism.
Praying Towns
Praying Towns were settlements established by Puritan missionary John Eliot in the mid-17th century in colonial Massachusetts. These towns were created to convert Indians to Christianity and to assimilate them into English colonial culture. Native inhabitants, known as “Praying Indians,” were encouraged to adopt European customs, clothing, and agricultural practices. The establishment of Praying Towns was part of an effort to evangelize Indians, but often led to tension between converted and traditional Indian communities.
Puritans
Puritans were English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to “purify” the Church of England from perceived remnants of Catholic practices. They emphasized personal piety, moral discipline, and simplified worship. Puritan beliefs played a significant role in shaping the religious landscape of colonial New England in America.
Spanish Mission System
The Spanish Mission System was a colonial institution established by the Spanish Empire to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity. It involved building mission compounds where Native Americans were taught Christianity, European farming techniques, and Spanish culture. However, this system often led to cultural assimilation, forced labor, and disruption of traditional ways of life among indigenous communities.
