Foreign Affairs in the New Nation

Essential Facts

• The United States faced significant foreign policy issues from 1761 to 1815.
• The French and Indian War boosted American loyalty to Great Britain.
• The XYZ Affair led to the Quasi-War (1798–1800) with France.
• The Louisiana Purchase (1803) doubled the nation’s size.
• The impressment of American sailors and American neutrality contributed to the War of 1812 with Britain.
• The Treaty of Ghent (1814) ended the War of 1812 without resolving major issues.
• The Adams-Onís Treaty (1819) ceded Florida to the U.S. from Spain.
• The U.S. Navy was strengthened to confront the Barbary States, leading to successful treaties in 1815.
• The U.S. Presidents during this time were George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe.

Significance

Foreign Affairs in the New Nation are important to American History because of how they helped develop foreign policy and contributed to the development of a national identity. Events involving Britain, France, Spain, and the Barbary States challenged the new nation as it made treaties and established military alliances while maintaining independence and emphasizing neutrality.

History

Between 1761 and 1815, the United States was faced with significant challenges from four foreign powers: Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Barbary States of North Africa.

• The most persistent issue the United States faced was defining its relations with Great Britain and France, which were competing for world dominance.
• Spain’s power was declining along the southern and western boundaries of the United States.
• After winning its independence, the U.S. suffered from attacks on its shipping by the Barbary States of North Africa.

By 1815, many of these issues were resolved, allowing the U.S. to start focusing on Westward Expansion instead of foreign conflicts.

• Britain and France were no longer at odds, and Spain surrendered Florida to the U.S.
• The Barbary States were defeated, ending threats to U.S. shipping.

Americans and the French and Indian War (1754-1763)

• Americans played a significant role in the struggle to remove the French from North America.
• There was strong enthusiasm for the French and Indian War (1754–63) and loyalty to the British Crown.
• The British victory at the Plains of Abraham near Quebec on September 13, 1759, brought peace and security to the American Colonies.
• However, during the war, British officers and soldiers treated their American counterparts poorly, which created tension.

American Revolution and Foreign Relations

• While many Americans supported Britain, not everyone followed British imperial rules and regulations during the war.
• Some merchants profited from trading with the French and the West Indies.
• Smuggling provided jobs for sailors and dockside workers and markets for farmers’ goods.
• Attempts to end illegal trade faced resistance from colonial Americans (see Salutary Neglect).
• During the early part of the American Revolution (1764–1775), Americans did not seek an alliance with the French.

The Impact of Foreign Support During the Revolutionary War

• The Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, marked a new phase in Colonial America and the American Revolution.
• Americans sought outside support to continue the fight against Britain.
• The Second Continental Congress, inspired by Revolutionary Ideals, created a Model Treaty for free trade with the U.S.
• Foreign nations did not take the treaty seriously because they did not believe the United States could win the war.
• Eventually, France was willing to support the Americans but asked for concessions, which were accepted.
• The United States granted “most favored nation” trading status to France and established a defensive alliance.
• Spain and the Netherlands became involved later in the war but did not sign formal treaties with the U.S.

Committee of Secret Correspondence — The Committee of Secret Correspondence, established by Congress in 1775, coordinated diplomatic efforts and transatlantic communication during the American Revolution. Key members included Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee. They secured secret aid from France and Spain despite British blockades and internal conflicts. By 1781, the Committee’s duties were transferred to the newly established Department of Foreign Affairs, with Robert R. Livingston as the first Secretary for Foreign Affairs.

Model Treaty — The Model Treaty, approved by Congress on September 17, 1776, served as a template for securing foreign alliances during the American Revolutionary War. It focused on reciprocal trade terms without direct military support. The Treaty of Amity and Commerce with France in 1778 was based on it, alongside the Treaty of Alliance, which included military provisions. The Model Treaty influenced future trade agreements, notably the Convention of 1800, which ended the Quasi-War with France.

Treaty of Alliance—The Treaty of Alliance with France was signed on February 6, 1778. It created a military alliance between the United States and France (see Franco-American Alliance) against Britain, and France agreed to provide support for American forces in the War for Independence. Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee negotiated the treaty.

Treaty of Amity and Commerce — Franklin, Lee, and Deane also negotiated the Treaty of Amity and Commerce with France, which was signed on February 6, 1778. France became the first nation to officially recognize the independent United States as a country separate from Britain. The treaty also established a trade agreement between the two nations.

Diplomacy and Challenges for the New Nation

• After the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783, the United States struggled to gain international respect.
• U.S. diplomatic efforts were primarily handled by Thomas Jefferson in Paris and John Adams in London.
• Some nations limited trade with the U.S. due to concerns about its long-term viability.
• The Barbary States posed threats to U.S. interests in the Mediterranean.
• British forces continued to occupy frontier outposts in the U.S.
• Spain contested the southern boundary and navigational rights on the Mississippi River.
• The Ratification of the Constitution did not improve the nation’s reputation in the world.
• The situation changed after the French Revolution started in 1789, which was inspired in part by the success of the American Revolution.

Differing Viewpoints on Foreign Affairs

The new nation was faced with significant challenges on the world stage. While it needed to maintain trade relationships with European nations, it also needed to limit its involvement in foreign affairs.

Disagreements between Federalists and Anti-Federalists on the Constitution carried over into foreign policy and contributed to the development of America’s first political parties, the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party.

The Federalists were led by Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, while the Democratic-Republicans were led by Thomas Jefferson, the Secretary of State.

• Federalists leaned toward retaining ties with Great Britain and were cautious toward France due to the French Revolution. Federalists also leaned toward an industrialized nation, so foreign trade was vital to their vision.
• Democratic-Republicans favored ties with France in support of the French Revolution. They favored an agricultural society and leaned toward Westward Expansion as the path for growing the new nation’s economy.

The French Neutrality Crisis

• By 1793, another war was underway between France and Great Britain.
• France urged the U.S. to uphold its obligations per the Treaty of Alliance.
• It sent Edmond-Charles Genêt to persuade American leaders to allow privateering and military expeditions to be launched from U.S. territory.
• President George Washington declined to support France and issued a Neutrality Proclamation on April 22, 1793, stating the U.S. would not assist either side.
• British actions included seizing American merchant ships and impressing sailors into the Royal Navy.
• In response, Washington sent John Jay to negotiate with Great Britain.
• Jay’s Treaty of 1794 resolved some issues but left several others unsettled. It also granted the British trading rights.
• France was outraged over Jay’s Treaty, as were many Americans who supported the French Revolution.

Citizen Genêt Affair — The Citizen Genêt Affair (1793–1794) was a diplomatic incident involving French Ambassador Edmond-Charles Genêt. After arriving in America, Genêt started gathering volunteers to help France fight against Britain. Realizing this could lead to war with Britain, President Washington asked the French Government to recall Genêt and send a new Ambassador. The incident helped shape American foreign policy and led to the passage of the Neutrality Act of 1794.

Washington’s Proclamation of Neutrality — On April 22, 1793, in an effort to warn Americans against becoming involved with Genêt, President Washington decided to protect the interests of the United States and issued the Proclamation of Neutrality.

Neutrality Act of 1794 — On March 13, 1794, the Senate passed the Neutrality Act, which prohibited citizens from enlisting or accepting commissions in foreign military forces, fitting out foreign privateers and warships, or participating in filibuster expeditions. It also made it illegal for citizens to wage war against any nation that was at peace with the United States.

Jay’s Treaty — Jay’s Treaty, ratified in 1795, was an important treaty between the United States and Great Britain that helped ease tension between the two nations. Widely criticized in America, the treaty was beneficial to Great Britain but helped the United States avoid war.

The XYZ Affair and the Quasi-War (1797–1800)

After George Washington decided not to run for a third term as President, John Adams won the 1796 Presidential Election, becoming the third President of the United States. Adams inherited the U.S. troubles with France.

• French dissatisfaction with U.S. neutrality led to the seizure of American ships on the high seas, creating a crisis.
• In the XYZ Affair (1797–98), French agents demanded a bribe before negotiations could begin.
• This incident triggered the Quasi-War (1798–1800), an undeclared conflict where the U.S. Navy engaged in naval battles against France.
• After Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in France, peace was restored.
• France declared that its alliance with the U.S. was void and ceased capturing American merchant ships.
• The U.S. decided not to demand reparations from France and agreed to treat French trade on equal terms with British trade.

Washington’s Farewell Address — In his Farewell Address (1796), Washington advised unity, warned against party politics, and urged isolation from foreign nations and “entangling alliances” to ensure the new nation’s stability and independence.

XYZ Affair—The XYZ Affair (1797–1800) was a diplomatic scandal between the United States and France that led to an undeclared naval war known as the Quasi-War. It played a significant role in shaping American foreign policy and domestic politics and contributed to the political divide that eventually led to the Civil War. Adams informed Congress in his XYZ Affair Speech on May 16, 1797.

Quasi-War with France — The Quasi-War was an undeclared naval war between the United States and France during the Presidency of John Adams. It grew out of the XYZ Affair and ended when French politics changed direction after Napoleon came into power and the two nations signed the Treaty of Mortefontaine.

The Treaty of Mortefontaine — Also known as the Convention of 1800, it ended the hostilities of the Quasi-War. The treaty terminated all previous agreements and reestablished trade ties between the United States and France.

The Louisiana Territory and the Louisiana Purchase (1803)

• After signing the agreement to end the Quasi-War, Napoleon secretly had Spain cede the Louisiana Territory to France (Treaty of San Ildefonso).
• Spain acknowledged its weakness and previously granted the United States free navigation of the Mississippi River, access to New Orleans, and a favorable Florida boundary through the Treaty of San Lorenzo (1795).
• Napoleon intended to establish a Franco-American empire using the Louisiana Territory.
• His plans were disrupted when a French expedition failed to secure control over Saint-Domingue (Haiti).
• Without the profitable colony in the West Indies, Napoleon no longer needed Louisiana.
• To finance his military efforts, he offered to sell the entire Louisiana Territory to the U.S.
• President Thomas Jefferson initially intended to acquire New Orleans but agreed to the Louisiana Purchase, doubling the nation’s size.

Treaty of San Lorenzo — Also known as Pinckney’s Treaty, it was signed between the United States and Spain in 1795. The treaty resolved territorial disputes between the two countries and granted both Spanish and American merchants and farmers the right to freely navigate the Mississippi River. It also provided Americans with tax-free access to the port of New Orleans in Spanish Louisiana, which helped expand the U.S economy. 

Treaty of San Ildefonso — In this 1800 treaty, Spain secretly ceded the vast territory of Louisiana back to France, which had originally controlled it before the 1763 Treaty of Paris. This helped set the stage for the 1803 Louisiana Purchase.

Louisiana Purchase — The Louisiana Purchase (1803) was the extraordinary acquisition the United States made of roughly 530,000,000 acres of land from the French First Republic in 1803. The U.S. paid $15 million to take control of New Orleans and the land between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains.

Challenges with Foreign Nations and the Buildup to the War of 1812

• The ongoing war between France and Britain caused difficulties for the United States.
• Neutral rights became a significant issue, as U.S. merchants benefited from trading as neutral carriers to both Britain and France.
• The British boarded American ships and impressed Americans, forcing them to serve on their ships.
• In the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair on June 22, 1807, the British fired on a U.S. ship, the Chesapeake, and seized four sailors.

Chesapeake-Leopard Affair — The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair increased tensions between the United States and Great Britain over issues of impressment and neutral trade. Americans were outraged, and some demanded the United States go to war. However, President Thomas Jefferson decided to use economic sanctions against Britain.

Economic Warfare Between the United States, France, and Britain

• The British and French tried to disrupt each other’s economies by limiting trade with foreign nations, including the United States.
• The British Orders in Council required all neutral ships to stop in Great Britain to have their cargoes checked for contraband before sailing to the continent.
• Napoleon responded with the Berlin Decree (1806) and Milan Decree (1807), threatening to seize ships that stopped in Britain before entering French-controlled areas.
• President Thomas Jefferson used trade as a diplomatic tool, leading to the Embargo Act of 1807, which banned all U.S. exports but hurt the economy.
• President James Madison later attempted to adjust trade restrictions with the Non-Intercourse Act (1809), which allowed trade with all except Britain and France.
• Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810) permitted trade but promised to stop trade with one nation if the other lifted its restrictions.
• Napoleon’s Cadore Letter (1810) indicated a willingness to lift restrictions, prompting the U.S. to reinstate non-intercourse with Great Britain.
• This decision contributed to tensions that ultimately led to the War of 1812 (1812–15).

Berlin Decree — The Berlin Decree, issued by Napoleon in 1806, was a key policy of the Continental System. This decree declared a comprehensive trade embargo against Britain and its allies, aiming to isolate Britain economically and weaken its global influence. It prohibited any neutral nation, including the United States, from trading with Britain.

British Orders in Council — The Orders in Council were British laws passed from 1807–1812 that imposed blockades and restrictions on American trade with France. They allowed the Royal Navy to intercept American ships headed to French ports or continental Europe and seize their goods. The escalating Orders in Council disrupted U.S. trade and were a major factor in increasing tensions with Britain in the years before the War of 1812.

Milan Decree — The Milan Decree, issued by Napoleon in 1807, further reinforced the Continental System by expanding trade restrictions against Britain. This decree declared that any neutral ship that had traded with Britain or submitted to British naval authority would be subject to seizure by French forces. The Milan Decree further strained relations between the United States and France, as American ships became targets in the escalating conflicts and trade restrictions.

Embargo of 1807 — The Embargo Act of 1807 was a U.S. law that prohibited the export of American goods to foreign countries. The Embargo Act was passed by Congress in response to a series of trade disputes with European powers, particularly Great Britain and France, which had been restricting American trade and seizing American vessels. The Embargo Act was intended to pressure these powers to respect American neutrality and the rights of American merchants, but it had unintended consequences and was widely unpopular. The Embargo Act led to economic hardship and widespread discontent in the United States, and it was eventually repealed in 1809.

Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 — The Non-Intercourse Act was a law passed by the U.S. Congress in 1809 that prohibited American trade with Great Britain and France. The act was intended to pressure the two countries to respect American neutrality in the Napoleonic Wars, which were being fought in Europe at the time. The act was one of several measures taken by the United States to maintain its neutrality in the conflict, and it was eventually replaced by other measures. 

Cadore Letter — The Cadore Letter was written by Jean-Baptiste Nompère de Champagny, the Duke of Cadore, who was the French Minister to the United States. In the letter, Napoleon offered to repeal the Berlin Decree and Milan Decree if the U.S. refused to trade with Britain.

Macon’s Bill No. 2 — Macon’s Bill No. 2 was a law passed by Congress in 1810 that lifted the trade restrictions imposed by the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809. The bill, which was sponsored by Representative Nathaniel Macon, allowed American trade with both Great Britain and France, but it also stipulated that if either country stopped violating American neutrality, the United States would cut off trade with the other country. The bill was intended to pressure the two countries to respect American neutrality, but it ultimately failed to achieve this goal.

AHC Note — British impressment of American sailors and the trade war between Britain, France, and the United States were maritime issues that caused the War of 1812.

The Treaty of Ghent and Its Aftermath

• The Treaty of Ghent (1814) ended the War of 1812 but did not resolve significant issues between the United States and Great Britain.
• It signaled the end of the most significant foreign policy challenge for the U.S. in its first 50 years.
• Issues of Impressment and Neutral Rights became irrelevant following Napoleon’s defeat.
• The relationship between the U.S. and Great Britain shifted towards amicable resolutions in future affairs.

War of 1812 — The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and Great Britain from 1812 to 1815. Land battles took place in North America, while sea battles occurred on North American lakes, in the English Channel, and in the Atlantic Ocean. Although the outcome of the war is considered to be a stalemate, it led to a wave of patriotism in the United States and the beginning of the “Era of Good Feelings.”

Treaty of Ghent — The Treaty of Ghent, signed in December 1814, ended the War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain. The treaty restored pre-war boundaries and marked the end of British support for Native American Indians in the Great Lakes Region. The war led to a rise in American nationalism and helped lay the groundwork for long-term peace between the U.S. and Britain.

Foreign Affairs with Spain

• Spain, weakened and facing uprisings in its American colonies, ceded Florida to the U.S. through coercion.
• The Adams-Onís Treaty (1819) established a defined boundary between Texas and Louisiana.
• After this treaty, Spain ceased to be a significant diplomatic challenge for the U.S. until the late 19th Century.

West Florida Revolt of 1810 — In 1810, the West Florida Revolt took place. American settlers in the region rebelled against Spanish rule and declared independence from Spain. President Madison did not recognize the Republic of West Florida, but he did make a case that West Florida — from the Mississippi to the Perdido rivers — was part of the Louisiana Purchase. As a result, the United States occupied West Florida in December 1810 and annexed the territory.

Adams-Onis Treaty — The Adams-Onís Treaty (1819) was an agreement between the United States of America and Spain that ceded Florida to the U.S. The treaty addressed three major problems: the Floridas, Texas, and the western boundary of the Louisiana Purchase. It also allowed the U.S. to span the continent, from the East Coast to the West Coast. The treaty was negotiated by John Quincy Adams.

The United States and the Barbary Wars

• The Barbary States caused problems for the United States starting in the 1780s.
• In 1793, Algiers captured 11 U.S. merchant ships and enslaved over 100 American sailors.
• The U.S. started building a navy to confront the Barbary Pirates, but a 1795 settlement cost nearly $1 million.
• A war with Tripoli broke out in 1801 and lasted until 1805. The U.S. paid $60,000 for the release of naval prisoners.
• Tripoli agreed to end tribute payments, leading to similar terms with other Barbary States until the War of 1812 and renewed seizures by Algiers.
• In 1815, with an expanded U.S. fleet, Stephen Decatur forced the Barbary States to accept treaties without payments.
• Through a combination of fortunate circumstances and military strength, the U.S. emerged from this period in a stronger position.

First Barbary War — The First Barbary War (1801–1805) was the first overseas war conducted by the United States. The nations involved were Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, which were on the Barbary Coast of Morocco. The war ended in victory for the United States, with peace treaties between the three Barbary States and Morocco.

Second Barbary War — The Second Barbary War (1815), also known as the Algerine War, was fought in 1815 between the United States and the Barbary States of North Africa, specifically Algiers. Like the First Barbary War, the conflict was triggered by the Barbary Pirates’ attacks on American merchant ships and their demands for tribute payments. After the War of 1812, the U.S. sought to end these payments and protect its trade interests. Under the command of Commodores Stephen Decatur and William Bainbridge, the U.S. Navy launched successful attacks on Algiers, forcing the Dey of Algiers to sign a treaty that ended tribute payments and secured the release of American prisoners. The war marked the end of the Barbary Pirates’ control over U.S. and European shipping in the Mediterranean.

The Monroe Doctrine

The United States adopted a policy of limited engagement with the rest of the world and defended its authority in the Western Hemisphere. These ideas were stated in the Monroe Doctrine (1823), a cornerstone of America’s foreign policy that warned against European influence in the Western Hemisphere and has been modified to justify American involvement in the region.