New York Campaign

Overview

The New York Campaign grew out of Britain’s plan to divide the colonies along the Hudson River and isolate the New England Colonies from the Middle Colonies and Southern Colonies. After American artillery on Dorchester Heights forced the British to evacuate Boston on March 17, 1776, General George Washington expected their next major attack to target New York. American forces constructed defenses on Manhattan, Long Island, and along the Hudson River. Washington recognized New York’s strategic importance but faced the difficult task of defending islands and waterways against the powerful British Navy.

General William Howe arrived near New York in late June, and British forces landed on Staten Island on July 2. Reinforcements increased Howe’s force to about 24,000 ground troops by mid-August. Admiral Richard Howe also arrived and attempted to negotiate with the Americans, but his peace efforts failed. The British then prepared to use New York as their main base of operations.

On August 22, the British landed 15,000 troops at Gravesend Bay on Long Island. Additional Hessian troops increased the British and Hessian force to more than 20,000, while the Americans had about 9,000 troops on Long Island. On August 27, British troops followed General Henry Clinton’s plan to move through the poorly defended Jamaica Pass and around the American left flank. The maneuver helped defeat the Americans at the Battle of Long Island. Instead of attacking the defenses at Brooklyn Heights immediately, Howe began siege operations. Washington used the delay to evacuate his army across the East River on the night of August 29.

After another unsuccessful peace conference on September 11, the British invaded Manhattan at Kip’s Bay on September 15. American militia fled the bombardment, and the British captured New York City. Washington withdrew to Harlem Heights. On September 16, American troops fought the British at the Battle of Harlem Heights, where they earned a small but important victory that improved American morale.

The British next attempted to move behind Washington and cut his army off from the mainland. They landed at Throg’s Neck on October 12 but were delayed by American defenders. After re-embarking, they landed at Pelham Bay, where Colonel John Glover’s troops delayed them again. These actions gave Washington time to move about 13,000 troops to White Plains. At the Battle of White Plains on October 28, the British captured Chatterton’s Hill, but Washington withdrew north before Howe could destroy his army.

Howe then turned south toward Fort Washington in northern Manhattan. On November 16, British forces attacked and captured the fort, its supplies, and about 2,800 American prisoners. The defeat brought total American losses during the campaign to about 4,400 killed, wounded, and captured.

The British ultimately captured New York City and made it their principal base for the next seven years, but they failed to destroy Washington’s Army. By the end of November, Washington was retreating across New Jersey with a greatly reduced force, yet the core of the Continental Army survived. Britain occupied New York until November 25, 1783, when British forces evacuated the city, and Washington returned.

Essential Facts

• Date: July–November 1776.
• Location: New York City, Long Island, Manhattan, and Westchester County, New York.
• Combatants: United States and Great Britain, including Hessian troops and Loyalists.
• American Commanders: George Washington, Charles Lee, William Alexander, Israel Putnam, Nathanael Greene, John Sullivan, John Glover, Thomas Knowlton, Robert McGaw.
• British Commanders: William Howe, Richard Howe, Henry Clinton, Charles Cornwallis.
• Who Won: Britain won the New York Campaign.
• Era:
  • July 1776.
  • August 1776.
  • September 1776.
  • October 1776.
  • November 1776.

Statistics

United States of America

• Casualties: About 4,400 killed, wounded, and captured.
• Forces Engaged: Continental Army and American militia.
• Troop Strength: About 19,000 troops were present and fit for duty when Washington organized New York’s defenses.

Great Britain

• Casualties: Undetermined.
• Forces Engaged: British Army, Royal Navy, Hessian troops, Loyalists, and formerly enslaved men organized by the British.
• Troop Strength: About 24,000 ground troops and 10,000 sailors by mid-August 1776.

Key Details

• At the start of the American Revolutionary War, both American and British leaders believed that New York City and the Province of New York were essential to their respective war efforts.
• Following the Siege of Boston, both General George Washington and General William Howe prepared for military operations in and around New York City on Manhattan Island.
• The Americans built defensive fortifications on Long Island and Manhattan Island to defend the city and block the British from using the Hudson River Valley.
• The United Colonies declared independence in July 1776, which shifted the course of the war.
• British forces arrived in August 1776 and soon after started to push the Americans toward the north end of Manhattan Island.
• Despite the hostilities, the two sides did attempt to negotiate a peace settlement, but the Americans refused to rescind the Declaration of Independence.
• After negotiations failed, the Americans were forced to abandon New York City and Manhattan Island and retreat into New Jersey.
• The string of defeats damaged General Washington’s reputation as a military leader.
• The inability to capitalize on military advantages damaged General William Howe’s relationship with his junior officers and British officials in London.
• The British occupied New York City until November 25, 1783.

Significance

The New York Campaign is important to American History because the outcome struck a serious blow to American morale and gave the British control of New York City from October 1777 until the war officially ended in 1783. Both General George Washington and General William Howe made tactical errors that could have ended the war during the campaign. However, Washington was able to escape into New Jersey, which set the stage for his dramatic victories at Trenton and Princeton in December 1776 and January 1777.

History

British Reinforcements Sent to America

In December 1774, Parliament allocated roughly 18,000 men to the task of ending the uprising in the American Colonies. Following the outbreak of hostilities with the Battles of Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775), approximately two-thirds of those troops — officers and “Regulars” — were under siege in Boston by the New England Army of Observation. 

• General William Howe had 19 regiments of troops in Boston and three regiments in Canada.
• These regiments consisted of 18-19,000 men.

After the Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775), British officials realized more troops were needed and decided to add another 12,000 seamen for the British Navy and 55,000 soldiers for the British Army. Many of the soldiers for the army were hired from Hesse-Cassel and other German states and are collectively referred to as “Hessians.”

• The first ships that sailed to America carried around 21,000 soldiers, of which one-third were British (4,200) and the rest Hessians (17,000). 
• They were followed by a second wave of ships carrying another 600 regiments of British soldiers (12,000). 
• The first two waves of reinforcements accounted for 33,000 of the 55,000 Parliament agreed to send to America.
• A third wave of reinforcements sailed to America in the spring of 1776.

The Strategic Value of New York City and the Hudson River Valley

The British believed that control of New York City offered them strategic advantages.

• Its location on the Atlantic Coast provided access to the Hudson River. 
• The Hudson River was deep enough for the British Navy’s largest warships.
• The Hudson River Valley extended north from the city for 300 miles to Fort Ticonderoga, then to Lake Champlain, and on to the Richelieu River. 

The Hudson River Valley was the main water route to Canada. The British knew they could use it to their advantage because they controlled the Province of Quebec.

American leaders also understood the importance of the city and the valley. In fact, the Continental Army used the route to send the main force into Canada for the Invasion of Quebec.

• On January 6, 1776, John Adams wrote a letter to George Washington and told him New York was ‘‘the Nexus of the Northern and Southern Colonies’’ and ‘‘a kind of Key to the whole Continent.’’
• Adams stressed the need to secure it because it provided access to Canada, the Great Lakes, and the Iroquois Confederacy.

British Naval Advantage

The Americans were at a significant disadvantage from a naval perspective. All they had was a collection of small ships and Privateers. Although these ships often held their own in small engagements, such as those that took place during the Operations Around Narragansett Bay (1775), they were unable to engage the Royal Navy’s large warships in a full-scale engagement.

The Siege of Boston Continues

Meanwhile, the Siege of Boston continued. Minor battles and skirmishes took place as the British sought supplies and provisions. Outside of Massachusetts, Patriots worked to prevent British supply ships from making their way to Boston.

British Strategy to Isolate New England

By August 1775, British leaders in London decided on a plan to separate the New England Colonies from the other regions. The plan included two armies. The first would march north out of New York City. The second would march south out of Canada. Together, they would take control of the region and meet at Albany, New York. This strategy formed the basis of the New York Campaign.

• The British intended to split the colonies along the Hudson River, isolating New England.
• They believed the American war effort would fail if New England, the most rebellious area, was separated from the others.
• Lord George Germain, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, was determined to make a ‘‘decisive blow’’ at New York City.

AHC Note — British officials also made a critical mistake in targeting New England that they repeated throughout the duration of the war. They consistently believed that Loyalists in the Middle Colonies and Southern Colonies would join the war effort. They thought this would help them maintain control of key cities, ports, and regions. In almost every instance, they were proven wrong. This was evident in the early part of 1776, when American forces won the Battle of Moore’s Creek Bridge (February 27, 1776) in North Carolina and the Battle of Sullivan’s Island (June 18, 1776) in South Carolina.

Congress Organizes the Continental Army

The original army that laid siege to Boston was composed of militia units from New England, organized into the New England Army of Observation under the command of General Artemas Ward. At first, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress directed this army. However, it was eventually decided that it needed to be an “American” army, and Massachusetts asked the Second Continental Congress to assume control of it.

• June 14 — The Continental Congress authorized companies of riflemen to be raised from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, establishing the Continental Army. A committee was appointed to draw up the rules and regulations for the new army. The committee included George Washington and Philip Schuyler. Congress also agreed to take control of the New England Army of Observation.
• June 15 — John Adams nominated George Washington to be General and Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. In a unanimous vote, Congress approved the nomination. Congress also authorized the commissioning of two Major Generals, five Brigadier Generals, and various officers for administrative duties.
• June 16 — Congress commissioned Charles Lee, Israel Putnam, Philip Schuyler, and Artemas Ward as Major Generals. Three more Brigadier Generals were also authorized to give more geographical balance to the command structure of the new army. Congress also started to formalize the army by establishing units and troop strengths and authorizing the appointment of an engineer, adjutant general, paymaster, commissary general, and quartermaster.

The terms of enlistment in this first version of the Continental Army were typically short. By the end of 1775, most of the enlistments had expired. General Washington, Congress, and the state governments were tasked with recruiting what was essentially a second Continental Army. The new recruits formed the nucleus of the army that served during the New York Campaign and contained:

• 27 regiments, also called “regiments of foot.”
• Each regiment was divided into eight companies.
• Each regiment had approximately 640 men, including officers.
• The only regiment from outside the New England States was the 1st Regiment, also known as the “Pennsylvania Riflemen.”

AHC Note  — In the early years of the war, regiments in the Continental Army were referred to as battalions.

Washington Sends Lee to New York

General Washington expected the British would eventually target New York City. Because of this, he sent General Charles Lee, his second-in-command, to the city to plan defensive fortifications and recruit volunteers from New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut.

• Lee arrived in New York on February 4, 1776.
• It was his opinion that the city, which occupied less than one square mile on the southern tip of Manhattan Island, would fall to the British due to their superior naval strength.
• However, Lee designed defenses that included forts, trenches, and barricades intended to impede the British and delay their capture of the city.

Lee blocked both ends of the East River with sunken obstacles and placed artillery batteries along the shore. He prioritized defenses on the heights that ran along the center of Long Island, hoping to secure the east side of Manhattan Island by placing artillery batteries there. However, he left two important areas undefended, despite recommendations from Congress and city residents:

1. Sandy Hook, which was the Lower Bay entrance from the Atlantic Ocean.
2. The Narrows that ran between Staten Island and Long Island, leading to Upper Bay.

AHC Notes

• Critics of Lee’s plan have argued that artillery batteries could have been placed along the shore on floating platforms. From these positions, the batteries could have inflicted heavy damage on British ships as they sailed past.
• The line of heights across the center of the island was called “Heights of Guian” or “Guyan Heights.” In this entry, we simply refer to them as “Brooklyn Heights.”

Washington, John Adams, and other members of Congress approved Lee’s plans. Afterward, Lee was given command of the new Southern Department (January 8, 1776) and sent to Charleston, South Carolina, to plan the defenses there.

• Congress’s confidence in Lee stemmed from its limited military experience.
• Congress agreed with Lee’s view that New York could not withstand Britain’s naval strength.
• Congress felt that New York, America’s second-largest city after Philadelphia, should not be surrendered without resistance.

The Siege of Boston Ends

After more than a year, the Siege of Boston came to an end in March 1776. It was made possible by the efforts of Henry Knox, who led an expedition to Fort Ticonderoga in upstate New York in November 1775. Knox and his men collected cannons and other artillery pieces from the fort and transported them back to Boston. Knox’s “Noble Train of Artillery,” as he called it, arrived at Framingham, outside of Boston, on January 25, 1776. 

Soon after, Washington and his officers learned that the British intended to occupy Dorchester Heights, which would enable them to launch a ground assault against American forces on the mainland. 

Washington called a Council of War on February 16, 1776, to discuss options with his officers. They decided to seize Dorchester Heights and place some of the cannons there, overlooking Boston Harbor.

• From March 2–5, American artillery bombarded British ships in the harbor.
• On the night of March 4, General John Thomas led 1,200 men to the Heights, where they built fortifications and set up the artillery.
• Around 10:00 that night, a British officer saw the Americans at work and notified Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith, who dismissed the report.

The batteries on Dorchester Heights posed a threat to the British ships in Boston Harbor because they were positioned on elevated ground. 

• The Americans would be able to fire down on the ships.
• The ships would be able to fire back, but their guns could not aim high enough, so it would be ineffective. 

General William Howe was forced to abandon the city. After negotiations, the British sailed out of Boston on March 17, 1776, and eventually made their way to Halifax, Nova Scotia.

AHC Notes

• Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith led the British Expedition that engaged the Massachusetts Militia forces during the Battles of Lexington and Concord.
• American forces captured Fort Ticonderoga on May 10, 1775.

American Forces Relocate to New York

When the British left Boston, Washington was unsure of their destination, but felt it was likely they were headed to New York City. 

• Washington started sending troops to occupy strategic locations around the city.
• He sent 21 regiments to New York, including those under the command of Israel Putnam, William Heath, John Sullivan, Nathanael Greene, and Joseph Spencer.

In the meantime, General Charles Lee left New York City for Charleston on March 7. He left General William Alexander, Lord Stirling, in command. Alexander oversaw the ongoing construction of the area’s defensive fortifications.

Putnam was the highest-ranking American officer when he arrived in New York City, so he assumed command from General Alexander and imposed martial law. Soon after, Washington started his march south, leaving five regiments in Boston to defend the city.

The American Retreat from Canada Begins

After Congress organized the Continental Army in June 1775, it gave General Philip Schuyler permission to invade the Province of Quebec. The invasion was successful until December 31, 1775, when American forces were stopped at the Battle of Quebec. Unable to capture the city, General Benedict Arnold organized a siege that lasted through the winter. 

As spring approached, the ice in the St. Lawrence River started to melt and break up. On May 2, a fleet of British warships and troop transports carrying some of the reinforcements sent by Parliament entered the river and sailed toward Quebec City. Among the passengers were General John Burgoyne, General Friedrich von Riedesel, and Hessian mercenaries.

• The first ships arrived at Quebec City on May 6.
• General John Thomas was notified, and he started to pull his troops back from the city, hoping to regroup, receive reinforcements, and launch another attack.
• General Guy Carleton, the British commander in Quebec City, took action, gathering 900 men and four cannons and leading them out of the city toward the American camp.

When the Americans saw them coming, they panicked and fled, leaving artillery, ammunition, and supplies behind, along with the sick and wounded. With this, the American retreat southward was underway.

Washington Arrives in New York

Washington arrived in New York City on April 13, 1776, and assumed command from Putnam. He quickly reorganized his forces into four brigades, led by Alexander, Greene, Heath, and Spencer.

• Washington had approximately 19,000 troops under his command in the area.
• He organized them along a line that stretched from the New Jersey Shore, across New York City, to Long Island.
• Alexander, Heath, and Spencer were tasked with completing the fortifications on Manhattan Island.
• Greene was sent to Long Island to complete the fortifications around Brooklyn Heights.
• Henry Knox, who was now in charge of the Artillery Regiment, oversaw the construction of various artillery batteries.

Washington also sent ten regiments to Canada, led by William Thompson and John Sullivan, to support General John Thomas, who was retreating with British forces in pursuit.

• Sullivan arrived at Fort St. John on June 1 and took command of the army.
• Thomas died from smallpox on June 2 at Chambly.

American Fortifications

In June, Washington expanded on Charles Lee’s defenses by fortifying the northern end of Manhattan Island with a series of forts. These were intended to protect the entrance to the Hudson Highlands, along with the King’s Bridge and the Free Bridge. The two main forts were:

• Fort Washington on the New York side of the Hudson River. It was a large installation, but not strong enough to outlast a siege.
• Fort Lee on the New Jersey side of the Hudson River, across from Fort Washington. Fort Lee was initially called Fort Constitution.

These two forts were situated so that if British ships tried sailing north up the Hudson River, American artillery batteries could catch them in a crossfire. Obstructions were also placed in the river to slow the advance of enemy ships.

• A third, Fort Independence, was built in lower Westchester County, New York, north of Fort Washington.

The two bridges were essential to the Americans because they were the only ones connecting Manhattan Island to the mainland.

• They could be used as escape routes.
• They were essential to transporting supplies. 

Eventually, the American fortifications included more than 20 redoubts with 120 guns. The guns came from Ticonderoga, Boston, the Bahamas, and foundries in the colonies. Meanwhile, Congress did what it could to acquire more cannons, muskets, and gunpowder. American artillery batteries were located at several places:

• Installations on Governor’s Island and Red Hook were equipped with 12 guns and protected the approach from the Bay to the East River. 
• An 8-gun battery on Paulus Hook defended the Jersey shore of the Hudson River.
• On Manhattan Island, there were 11 redoubts with 79 guns, located on slight elevations near the water. These stretched from Chambers Street around the Battery and up the East River to 86th Street, across from Hell Gate.
• On Long Island, in front of Brooklyn, there were seven redoubts with 29 guns, spanning the ridge from Greenwood Cemetery to the Brooklyn Reservoir. This area was about a mile wide and located between the swamps of Wallabout Bay to the north and Gowanus Creek to the south.

Ground defenses were supported by a small fleet, commanded by Benjamin Tupper. The fleet was made up of small ships, including schooners, sloops, row galleys, and whaleboats. They patrolled the coast of Long Island and New Jersey, keeping watch for the arrival of British ships. However, they were no match for the powerful warships in the British Navy.

Expansion of the Continental Army

Meanwhile, Washington’s troop strength was boosted in two ways:

• June 1 — Congress passed a resolution calling for 13,800 militiamen to aid in the defense of New York City and 6,000 for the Northern Army at Fort Ticonderoga. Another 10,000 troops were approved for a “flying camp” that could be sent to any location deemed necessary.
• June 3 — General Sullivan and what remained of his regiment returned to New York City after participating in the American retreat from Quebec.
• July 13 — Washington had roughly 10,000 men fit for combat duty.

New York Regiments

Over the next five weeks, the army swelled to 28,000 troops and included 13 New York regiments.

• Three regiments were with General Philip Schuyler and the Northern Army.
• Part of one regiment was stationed in the Hudson Highlands.
• Two regiments were with Washington in New York City. These were commanded by Colonel Alexander McDougall and Colonel Rudolph Ritzema.
• Nine regiments made up two brigades led by Brigadier General John Morin Scott and Brigadier General George Clinton.

Scott’s Brigade included two regiments made up of men from New York City, including the “First Independent Battalion,” which was led by Colonel John Lasher. The First Independent consisted mostly of young men from New York City who came from wealthy, prominent families. Each company had a unique name and uniform. For example, Captain James Alner led the “Prussian Blues,” and Captain Henry G. Livingston led the “Hearts of Oak.”

• George Clinton (1739–1812) — Clinton was a member of the Continental Congress and voted for the Declaration of Independence. After casting his vote, he returned to New York to help defend it.
• James Clinton (1736–1812) — The brother of George Clinton, he oversaw the construction of American fortifications in the Hudson Highlands. In August, he was promoted to Brigadier General in the Continental Army.
• Alexander McDougall (1732–1786) — McDougall was a prominent leader of the Patriot Cause in New York City and was a member of the Sons of Liberty. He played key roles in opposition to the Stamp Act, the Townshend Acts, and the controversy that led to the Battle of Golden Hill. He was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General in the Continental Army.
• John Morin Scott (1730–1784) — A prominent New York lawyer, Scott supported the Patriot Cause and was a founding member of the New York Sons of Liberty. He was a member of the New York Provincial Congress and the New York Committee of Safety.
• Rudolph Ritzema (1739–1803) — Ritzema was a native of the Dutch Republic. His family emigrated to America in 1744. He was a member of New York’s Committee of Sixty and Committee of One Hundred.

Loyalists Harassed in New York City

On the evening of June 11, 1776, some Loyalists were dragged through the streets of the city. Patriots forced some of them to carry lit candles, while others had candles pushed into their faces, burning their skin. Two days later, on June 13, some Loyalists were stripped, tied to rails, and carried through the streets. American officers, including General Putnam, restored order and ended the harassment.

The Hickey Plot

Around this time, a Loyalist plot to undermine the American war effort was uncovered, which included a threat against General Washington’s life. Known as the “Hickey Plot,” it involved enlisting American soldiers to aid the Loyalists in a plot devised and funded by Governor William Tryon and Mayor David Matthews.

• The Loyalists intended to spike cannons, blow up military stores, and potentially assassinate the Continental Army’s officers, including Washington.
• The plot was exposed when Thomas Hickey, a member of Washington’s security detail known as the “Life Guards,” was arrested on charges of counterfeiting.

While he was in jail, Hickey boasted of being involved in a plot to kill Washington. One of the other prisoners turned him in, and the information was shared with the counterintelligence committee led by John Jay, known as the Committee for Detecting and Defeating Conspiracies.

Hickey was court-martialed for conspiring with the “enemies of the United Colonies.” He was found guilty on June 26, 1776, and sentenced to death by hanging. Hickey was publicly hanged on June 28 in New York City, while roughly 20,000 people watched.

• William Tryon (1729–1788) — English-born, Tryon served as the Royal Governor of North Carolina, where he defeated the Regulators at the Battle of Alamance (May 16, 1771). Soon after, he transferred to New York, where he frequently clashed with the New York Sons of Liberty. As the war progressed, he led Loyalist troops into Connecticut and then commanded British forces on Long Island.
• David Mathews (1739–1800) — Mathews was a lawyer and politician from New York City. He was a Loyalist and served as the city’s mayor from 1776 to 1783. Following the war, he moved to Canada.

British Forces Arrive at New York

The events taking place in Canada forced General William Howe to delay his expedition from Halifax to New York, so British forces did not start arriving there until the last week of June 1776. 

• Washington learned of Howe’s approach when an American Privateer captured a British transport carrying 200 soldiers.
• On June 25, three British warships, including the Greyhound, passed Sandy Hook and reached the lower bay. Howe and his men were on the Greyhound.

Washington wrote to John Hancock on June 29, informing him, “For two or three days past three or four ships have been dropping in, and I just now received an express from an officer appointed to keep a lookout on Staten Island, that forty-five arrived at the Hook to-day — some say more; and I suppose the whole fleet will be in within a day or two.”

As Washington expected, more ships followed. By July 1, there were 130 in the waters around Staten Island. Most of the troops on these ships were the veterans of the Siege of Boston, who had sailed to Halifax in March. 

The next day, July 2, Howe established a camp on the northeast side of Staten Island, across from Long Island, to serve as his base of operations.

• Privateers — Privateers were ship owners who were issued “letters of marque,” allowing them to capture British vessels, which helped disrupt British commerce and boost the Patriot cause. Privateering was a way Americans challenged British naval power during the war.
• William Howe (1729–1814) — Howe was a veteran of the French and Indian War and returned to America during the Siege of Boston. He commanded British troops at Bunker Hill and later replaced General Thomas Gage as commander-in-chief of British forces.

The Declaration of Independence

On July 2, 1776, Congress was voting on the Lee Resolution and independence from Great Britain. Washington tried to rally his men, telling them:

“The fate of unborn millions will now depend, under God, on the courage and conduct of this army. Our cruel and unrelenting enemy leaves us no choice but a brave resistance or the most abject submission. This is all we can expect. We have, therefore, to resolve to conquer or die. Our country’s honor calls upon us for a vigorous and manly exertion, and if we now shamefully fail we shall become infamous to the whole world. Let us, therefore, rely upon the goodness of the cause and the aid of the Supreme Being, in whose hands victory is, to animate and encourage us to great and noble actions. The eyes of all our countrymen are now upon us, and we shall have their blessings and praises, if happily we are the instruments of saving them from the tyranny meditated against them…Any officer or soldier, or any particular corps, distinguishing themselves by any acts of bravery and courage, will assuredly meet with notice and rewards…”

He also warned them, “…on the other hand, those who behave ill will as certainly be exposed and punished: the general being resolved, as well for the honor and safety of the country as of the army, to show no favor to such as refuse or neglect their duty at so important a crisis.”

Congress voted to declare independence, but it took two more days to approve the formal Declaration of Independence (July 4). John Hancock, the President of Congress, sent a copy to Washington at his camp in New York City and asked him to read it to the army. 

Washington received it on July 8 and issued orders for the men to assemble the next day. 

On July 9, the Declaration of Independence was read and cheered by the men. Some of them ran through the streets of the city to Bowling Green, where they joined the Sons of Liberty and a crowd in tearing down the statue of King George III that was there.

AHC Notes

• The statue of King George III was erected in 1770 to celebrate the end of the Seven Years’ War. 
• Oliver Wolcott took the pieces to his home in Litchfield, Connecticut, where they were melted down and used to make bullets for the American muskets.
• Wolcott was a member of Congress and signed the Declaration of Independence.

British Naval Maneuver on the Hudson River

On July 12, 1776, two British warships, the Phoenix and the Rose, sailed up the Hudson River. Despite intense cannon fire from American artillery batteries, the ships, aided by strong winds, safely passed Fort Washington and Fort Lee and anchored 30-40 miles north of New York City, near Tarrytown and Sleepy Hollow, in the area of the river known as Tappan Zee. 

The ships bombarded the city as they passed, causing damage to buildings, but no people were injured. Many people fled the city afterward.

The maneuver showed the British could command the Hudson River with their ships, allowing them to:

• Provide aid to Loyalists.
• Disrupt American communication lines and supply lines between New York City and Albany.
• Threaten the construction of American frigates, which was taking place further north.

Admiral Howe Arrives

Admiral Richard Howe, the Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Navy and General Howe’s brother, arrived with a massive fleet of 150 ships on July 12, carrying elite British Regulars and Hessian troops. At the head of the fleet was Howe’s flagship, Eagle.

• Richard Howe (1726–1799) — Howe was an Admiral in the British Royal Navy and commanded forces during the Revolutionary War from 1776 to 1778. He is often criticized for failing to take advantage of situations that may have ended the war as early as 1776.

Initial Peace Talks

Before leaving England, Lord Germain appointed the Howe brothers to conduct peace talks and issue pardons on behalf of the British government. However, they also hoped that a strong military presence around New York City would convince the Americans to negotiate a peaceful end to hostilities. 

Upon Admiral Howe’s arrival, General Howe informed him of the Declaration of Independence and American preparations for battle. On July 13, Admiral Howe initiated peace talks with General Washington:

• Howe sent a naval officer, on a barge under a flag of truce, to deliver a letter to Washington.
• The barge was detained by one of the American ships from Tupper’s fleet.
• Washington discussed the matter with some of his officers. They agreed the letter needed to be appropriately addressed to him as “General.”
• Colonel Joseph Reed and Colonel Henry Knox went to meet with Howe’s messenger, who said he carried a letter from “Lord Howe to Mr. Washington.”
• Reed replied, “Sir, we have no person in our army with that address.”
• The messenger showed Reed the letter, and Reed insisted he could not accept it because it was addressed to “George Washington, Esq.”
• The messenger eventually left and returned to the British fleet.

Howe tried again on July 20. He sent one of his officers, Lieutenant Colonel James Patterson, to attempt to meet with Washington. Patterson’s mission was to convince Washington to accept the letter and discuss prisoner exchanges. Patterson landed on the mainland and was taken to Henry Knox’s headquarters, where Washington was waiting for him.

According to Knox, “General Washington was very handsomely dressed, and made a most elegant appearance. Colonel Patterson appeared awe-struck, as if he was before something supernatural. Indeed, I don’t wonder at it. He was before a very great man, indeed.”

Ultimately, Washington made it clear the Americans were committed to defending their independence and that if Admiral Howe wanted to continue negotiations, he should contact Congress in Philadelphia.

• George Germain (1716–1785) — He replaced Frederick North as Secretary of State for the Colonies in November 1775 and served in that capacity until 1782. Germain was the 1st Viscount Sackville and was usually referred to as Lord Germain or Lord Sackville.

Clinton and Cornwallis Arrive

After the initial peace talks failed, the Howes prepared to use military force. However, they took a cautious approach and delayed their attack for three weeks.

On August 1, Admiral Peter Parker’s fleet arrived from Charleston, carrying General Henry Clinton, General Charles Cornwallis, and 3,000 troops who had been defeated at the Battle of Sullivan’s Island.

• AHC Note — Tension between Howe and Clinton started when they disagreed over the strategy at Bunker Hill. Clinton’s failure at Charleston intensified the situation.

Attacks on the British Ships in the Tappan Zee

On August 3, four ships from the small American fleet sailed up the Hudson River and attacked the British ships anchored at Tappan Zee. They failed to cause significant damage and withdrew.

• August 16 — The Americans attacked again. They set rafts on fire and pushed them into the British ships. However, the only significant damage they did was to sink one of the smaller British ships.
• August 18 — The British ships withdrew and rejoined the rest of the fleet near Staten Island.

Preparations for Hostilities

With the arrival of Admiral Parker’s fleet, Washington knew the time was near for General Howe to make his attack. On August 8, Washington ordered his men to be ready at all times for an attack, especially during high tide, when the British fleet could approach.

• August 17 — Washington asked the New York Convention to inform any remaining inhabitants that the city was in danger and likely to be the “scene of a bloody conflict.” He asked to have women, children, and the sick removed.
• August 20 — Captain Nathan Hale wrote, “Our situation has been such this fortnight or more as scarce to admit of writing. We have daily expected an action — by which means, if any one was going, and we had letters written, orders were so strict for our tarrying in camp, that we could rarely get leave to go and deliver them. For about six or eight days the enemy have been expected hourly, whenever the wind and tide in the least favored.”

British Strategy

On August 12, 1776, another British fleet of 100 ships arrived, carrying 1,000 British soldiers and 7,800 Hessian soldiers. 

• General Howe’s army had around 31,000 soldiers, including 8,000 Hessians.
• Admiral Howe’s navy had 30 warships, 400 other ships, and 10,000 sailors. The ships were armed with about 1,200 guns, including powerful 61-pounders and 74-pounders. These guns outnumbered what Henry Knox had for the defense of the city.
• The Hessians were under the command of General Leopold Philip de Heister.

This was the single largest concentration of British forces during the entire war. Despite its size, it would still not allow the Howes to gain control over all 13 colonies.

• Admiral Howe had a total of 73 warships to manage operations in Canada, New York, and Florida, along with maintaining a blockade along the East Coast, running from Nova Scotia to Florida.
• General Howe knew he did not have enough men to occupy all of the colonies.

Because of this, British officials believed it was essential that Howe strike a decisive blow against the Americans. Lord Germain also believed victory in New York would encourage Loyalists to turn out to help restore British authority.

At first, General Howe wanted to capture or destroy Washington’s Army, believing this would avoid a prolonged war. However, by mid-August, he changed his mind and decided it was best to use a classic military strategy and focus on capturing and controlling key cities, territories, and water routes.

• Howe knew it would take multiple campaigns to end the war, but he thought his approach would limit casualties.
• His first objective was to control New York City. He wanted to drive the Americans out, occupy it, and then use it as a base of operations.

AHC Note — Unfortunately, most of the correspondence of the Howe brothers was lost in a fire, leaving historians to debate the reasoning behind the change in the British strategy for the New York Campaign. Some of the popular theories revolve around:

• Admiral Howe preferred to make peace with the Americans.
• General Howe wanted to avoid the heavy casualties he witnessed at Bunker Hill.
• They overestimated the number of troops Washington actually had.

Howe and Clinton Clash

General Howe and his officers met to discuss the plan to land their forces and attack the American positions. At some point during the discussions, General Clinton suggested landing on the northern tip of Manhattan Island, arguing it would block American escape routes and trap them on the island.

Howe ignored Clinton’s suggestion and proposed landing British forces on Long Island to capture Brooklyn Heights. He believed this would prevent the Americans from using the high ground to threaten British forces, as they had done in Boston by fortifying Dorchester Heights. It also provided him with some other advantages:

• British forces would remain concentrated in one area rather than spread out across Manhattan Island, Staten Island, and Long Island.
• There were farms on Long Island that could be used by the British for provisions. If the British occupied Long Island, it would reduce the need to ship food and provisions from England.
• Howe anticipated strong support from Loyalists living on Long Island.

The Continental Army Around New York City

Washington was outnumbered and facing the most powerful, well-trained army and navy in the world, along with 20,000 hired mercenaries. By the end of August, he had 25 regiments of Continental soldiers and parts of 75 militia regiments under his command. It is estimated he had around 28,000 men, but only 14,700 were fit for duty, and many of those lacked formal military training. Despite this, Washington reorganized the army into five divisions led by:

1. Israel Putnam
2. William Heath
3. Joseph Spencer
4. John Sullivan
5. Nathanael Greene

Washington understood that the British controlled the water and could land wherever they wanted to, so he chose specific locations to deploy his troops:

• Three divisions (Putnam, Spencer, Sullivan) were in the southern part of Manhattan Island, in and around the city.
• Heath’s division was on the northern part of Manhattan Island, spread out between Fort Washington and King’s Bridge.
• Greene’s division was on Brooklyn Heights, Long Island’s high ground, directly across the East River from the city.

Greene Succumbs to a Fever on Long Island

By early August 1776, Nathanael Greene had spent roughly four months overseeing the construction of 1.5 miles of defensive fortifications on Long Island and scouting the terrain. This included forts, redoubts, and trenches that were intended to defend the rear of his division. Most of his 4,000 troops were deployed along the center of the island, on Brooklyn Heights, which was accessible by four passes. Greene knew the terrain well and had men in position to defend each pass:

1. Gowanus Bay, to the far west, was defended by 550 troops.
2. Flatbush Pass, just north of Flatbush Town, was defended by 1,000 troops.
3. Bedford Pass, less than a mile east of Flatbush Pass, was defended by 800 troops.
4. Jamaica Pass, two miles northeast of Bedford Pass, was defended by 400 troops.

Malaria, typhus, and typhoid started spreading through Greene’s forces because they were close to the swamps of Wallabout and Gowanus. Some of the men were even drinking contaminated water from the ditches that were used for sanitation. Green started to suffer from a high fever, but tried to continue with his duties until mid-August.

• August 9 — General Heath recorded, “The number of sick amounted to near 10,000; nor was it possible to find proper hospitals or proper necessaries for them. In almost every farm, stable, shed, and even under the fences and bushes, were the sick to be seen…”
• August 12 — Washington promoted Thomas Knowlton to Lieutenant Colonel and instructed him to select a group of men from the New England regiments to spy on the British. This group was initially called “Congress’s Own” but is usually referred to as “Knowlton’s Rangers.” One of the volunteers who joined the Rangers was Nathan Hale of Connecticut.
• August 15 — Greene wrote to Washington and said, “I am very sorry that I am under the necessity of acquainting you that I am confined to my bed with a raging fever. The critical situation of affairs makes me the more anxious, but I hope, through the assistance of Providence, to be able to ride before the presence of the enemy may make it absolutely necessary…”
• August 16 — Greene’s aide reported he “had a very bad night of it.”
• August 20 — His condition worsened, and he was moved to a house on Manhattan Island

General Sullivan replaced Greene and proceeded to reposition the troops on Long Island and add fortifications. Sullivan intended to place 800 men at three of the passes, but only around 400 at Jamaica Pass.

Howe Prepares to Invade Long Island

Washington did not know if Howe intended to target the city or Long Island. He even suspected he would cross over to New Jersey and launch an attack from there. Patriot spies were at work, trying to determine where Howe would land his troops.

Meanwhile, Loyalists in the area scouted the American defensive works and passed the information on to General Howe. Using this information, Howe developed a plan to attack American forces on Long Island on August 22, 1776. Preparations were made to move British troops from Staten Island to Long Island and land them at Gravesend Bay, one mile east of the Narrows.

On August 21, a heavy thunderstorm hit the area and nearly forced Howe to delay the attack. It was so severe that it caused confusion and panic in the American camps, where it was reported that at least four men were struck and killed by lightning.

During the storm, Washington received intelligence that the British were making preparations to invade Long Island. However, he was still unsure if it was to be the only target or if Howe would also land troops at King’s Bridge, which would put the enemy at Washington’s rear.

• AHC Note — Washington wrote to Congress on September 9 and said, “Before the landing of the enemy on Long Island, the point of attack could not be known, nor any satisfactory judgment formed of their intentions. It might be on Long Island, on Bergen, or directly on the city.”

British Forces Land on Long Island

The storm cleared the area and gave way to favorable weather on August 22, 1776, allowing Howe to start his operation.

• On Staten Island, 15,000 troops prepared to board transports that would move them to Gravesend Bay and Denyse Point on Long Island. They were accompanied by 40 pieces of artillery.
• A group of warships moved into position in the harbor and the Narrows to defend the transports.
• General Henry Clinton and General Charles Cornwallis commanded the first 4,000 troops that crossed over.
• The British landed at Gravesend without opposition, although they were under close watch by American forces, who followed their movements.
• Some American forces fell back to Brooklyn Heights, burning crops and killing livestock as they went.

The first reports Washington received estimated that 8,000 troops had landed on Long Island, while another 12,000 were being transported to King’s Bridge.

• General Sullivan commanded roughly 9,000 American troops on Long Island.
• British troop strength on the island swelled to more than 20,000, outnumbering the Americans by more than two to one.

On August 22, Washington wrote a letter to John Hancock, and told him, “The falling down of several ships yesterday evening to the Narrows, crowded with men, those succeeded by many more this morning, and a great number of boats parading around them, as I was just now informed, with troops, are all circumstances indicating an attack, and it is not improbable it will be made to-day. It could not have happened last night, by reason of a most violent gust.”

Skirmish at Flatbush

General Sullivan braced for an attack, but the British did not advance. However, some minor skirmishes took place around Flatbush. In one of them:

• A small contingent of British troops was on the road near Bedford when American riflemen fired on them.
• The British fell back and took refuge in some homes. 
• The Americans pursued them, drove them out, and burned the houses.
• At least one British soldier was killed. The rest escaped, gathered reinforcements, and returned, forcing the Americans to withdraw.

Nathan Hale referenced this incident and another in his journal: “23d. Friday. Enemy landed more troops — News that they had marched up and taken Station near Flatbush, their [advance guards] being on this side near the Woods — that some of our Rifle-men attacked and drove them back from their post, burnt 2 stacks of hay, and it was thought killed some of them — this about 12 O’clock at Night. Our troops attacked them at their station near [Flatbush], routed and drove them back about 1 1/2 mile.”

Putnam Takes Command on Long Island

On August 24, 1776, Washington sent more reinforcements to Brooklyn Heights, including General William Alexander and General John Nixon. With these moves, roughly one-third of the American army was on Long Island. Because of this, Washington sent General Putnam, who was more experienced, to take overall command of the American forces on Long Island. Light skirmishing continued until August 26.

Washington arrived on Long Island on the 26th and inspected the troop placements. The main camp was located in Brooklyn, with Brooklyn Heights in front of it, and the East River behind it. American troops were positioned along the Heights, from Gowanus Bay (east) to Jamaica Pass (west).

Washington finished his review early in the evening and returned to Manhattan Island. Later that evening, Sullivan sent a small patrol of five men on horseback to scout Jamaica Pass. These were the only American troops stationed at the pass, as Putnam also failed to defend it.

AHC Notes

• Because Washington reviewed the troops, many historians argue that he ultimately bears the responsibility for the weak defenses at Jamaica Pass.
• Colonel Miles blamed Sullivan for failing to defend Jamaica Pass adequately. The day before the battle, Sullivan inspected the lines and met with Miles, who told him that he “…was convinced when the army moved that Gen’l Howe would fall into the Jamaica road, and I hoped there were troops there to watch them.” However, “…no steps were taken…”

The Battle of Long Island

While the British prepared for their attack, General Clinton suggested outflanking the Americans at Brooklyn Heights on their left by marching through Jamaica Pass. On August 26, 1776, Oliver De Lancey, a Loyalist, convinced Howe the plan was viable with the help of local guides.

Around the time Washington left Long Island on the 26th, Howe marched out of his camp with a column that moved through Jamaica Pass overnight. Meanwhile, British forces moved toward the American line:

• General James Grant and 5,000 men moved in front of the Americans on the right of their line (Gowanus Bay).
• General Leopold Philip de Heister led 6,000 Hessian troops in front of the Americans near the center of their line (Flatbush Pass and Bedford Pass).

Howe wanted Grant and Heister to attack the Americans in front to distract them, while he marched through Jamaica Pass, moved behind the Americans, and struck the decisive blow.

Around 3:00 a.m. on August 27, Howe’s men, with General Clinton in the lead, marched undetected around Colonel Samuel Miles and 400 Americans who were west of Jamaica Pass. When the British arrived at the pass, they found the small American patrol of five men on horseback and captured them. This cleared the way for Howe to march through Jamaica Pass.

• At 8:00, Miles moved to Jamaica Pass and saw the end of Howe’s column moving through.
• Miles sent most of his men to Brooklyn Heights, and led the rest in an attack on the rear of Howe’s column.
• Miles and 159 Americans were captured in the skirmish.

By 9:00, Howe was behind the American line. He ordered his artillery to fire two cannon shots, signaling Grant and Heister to start their attacks. With this, the Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the American Revolutionary War in terms of combined forces, was underway.

Heister and the Hessians attacked right away, and the Americans at Bedford Pass and Flatbush Pass responded by falling back to Brooklyn Heights. General Sullivan took command of the American forces, organized a rear guard to protect the retreating men, and engaged the oncoming Hessians. The Americans suffered heavy casualties, and Sullivan was taken as a prisoner.

Grant delayed his attack, which allowed Alexander to organize his 1,600 men. Meanwhile, Grant received an additional 2,000 reinforcements, boosting his strength to 7,000.

• Alexander organized his troops into a European-style open-field formation.
• Alexander and Grant fired on each other with artillery and muskets, but Grant did not launch a full-scale assault.

Alexander and his men started withdrawing to Brooklyn when they saw Howe had moved General Charles Cornwallis into position to block the escape route.

• Alexander made a bold move and tried to escape to Brooklyn Heights by crossing Gowanus Creek, which was roughly 80 yards wide.
• He ordered the men to start crossing the creek, and then pulled a rear guard together with Major Mordecai Gist and somewhere between 250 and 280 men from the Maryland Regiment.
• Instead of waiting for Cornwallis to pursue him, Alexander moved forward and launched an attack.

Alexander and the men, who are known as the “Maryland 400,” covered the retreat for more than 30 minutes, allowing most of the Americans to escape to safety. 

• Most of the Maryland 400 were killed.
• Alexander was captured. 
• Gist was able to gather the survivors and escape to the safety of the defensive fortifications at Brooklyn.

Alexander wrote a letter to Washington on the 29th, explaining how he was captured: “…Near Eleven o’Clock, when I found that General Howe…was between me and Our Lines, and saw that [the] only Chance of Escapeing being all made prisoners, was to pass the Creek near the Yellow Mills, and in order to render this the more practicable I found it Absolutely Necessary to Attack a Body of Troops Commanded by Lord Cornwallis posted at the House near the Upper Mills; this I Instantly did, with about half of smallwoods first ordering all the other troops to make the best of their way thro’ the Creek, we Continued the Attack a Considerable time the Men haveing been rallied and the Attack renewed five or Six Several times, and were on the point of driveing Lord Cornwallis from his Station, but large [reinforcements] arriveing rendered it impossible to do more than to provide for Safety, I endeavoured to get in between that House and fort Box, but on Attempting it I found a Considerable body of Troops in my Front, and Several in pursuit of me on the Right & left & a Constant fireing on me, I immediately Turned the point of a Hill which Covered me from their fire, and I was soon out of the Reach of my pursuers; I soon found that it would be in Vain to Attempt to make my Escape, and therefore went to Surrender my self to General De Heister Commander in Cheif of the Hessians.”

Americans Escape from Long Island

The Americans were now in a dangerous position on Long Island. Although they were in their defensive fortifications around Brooklyn, they were trapped between the East River behind them and General Howe’s army in front of them. However, the British faced their own challenges:

• Strong winds prevented Admiral Howe’s ships from sailing up the East River to attack.
• General Howe failed to take advantage of his superior numbers. Instead of assaulting the Americans, which he knew would increase casualties, he decided to prepare for a siege.

The weather and General Howe’s hesitation gave Washington the time he needed to organize a bold nighttime evacuation of troops and supplies from Long Island to Manhattan Island on the night of August 29, 1776. 

• Under cover of thick fog, 10,000 Americans were transported in boats piloted by Colonel John Glover and his “Marblehead Men” (14th Continental) and Colonel Israel Hutchinson and his Salem Regiment (27th Continental) across the East River.
• They kept fires burning overnight to make the British think they were preparing for battle.

After the Americans escaped from Long Island, hostilities paused for two weeks. The British occupied Long Island while the Americans prepared to defend New York City.

In his memoirs, Benjamin Tallmadge described the heavy fog that hid the escape: “It was one of the most anxious, busy nights that I ever recollect, and being the third in which hardly any of us had closed our eyes to sleep, we were all greatly fatigued. As the dawn of the next day approached, those of us who remained in the trenches became very anxious for our own safety, and won the dawn appeared there were several regiments still on duty. At this time a very dense fog began to rise, and it seemed to settle in a peculiar manner over both encampments. I recollect this peculiar providential occurrence perfectly well; and so very dense was the atmosphere that I could scarcely discern a man at six yards’ distance.”

AHC Notes

• Benjamin Tallmadge (1754–1835) — Tallmadge was an officer in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Although he fought in some important battles, he is best known for organizing and leading the Culper Spy Ring, which gathered intelligence for General George Washington. Tallmadge also played a key role in uncovering the Treason of Benedict Arnold.

Washington Prepares for the Attack on New York City

Washington fully expected Howe to attack and prepared by reorganizing the army into three divisions, commanded by Putnam, Spencer, and Heath. Troops were posted along the East River and Harlem River, from the Battery on the south end of the island to King’s Bridge on the north end. Washington also asked Congress if he should abandon New York City and burn it to the ground.

On September 1, 1776, while Washington waited on instructions from Congress, he started working with General William Heath and General James Clinton to set up a “channel of information” regarding British operations on Long Island.

On September 3, Congress instructed Washington to: “…have especial care taken, in case he should find it necessary to quit New York, that no damage be done to the said city by his troops on their leaving it; the Congress having no doubt of being able to recover the same, though the enemy should, for a time, obtain possession of it.”

• Washington’s officers were divided on whether they should try to defend the city.
• Nathaniel Greene wanted to evacuate it and burn everything to the ground so the British could not use it as a base of operations.

On September 5, Washington wrote to Heath: “As everything in a manner depends upon obtaining intelligence of the enemy’s motions, I do most earnestly entreat you and General Clinton to exert yourselves to accomplish this most desirable end. Leave no stone unturned, as I never was more uneasy than on account of my want of knowledge on this score.”

British Ships in the East River

Around September 6, 1776, British ships started gathering near Governors Island, south of Manhattan Island. By this time, American forces had abandoned Governors Island.

• Some of the ships sailed up the East River, where Americans fired on them but did little damage.
• Howe prepared to move his troops from Long Island to Manhattan Island.
• He positioned his troops on the shore of Long Island, along the banks of the East River, as far north as Hell Gate.

The Turtle

On the night of September 6, 1776, inventor David Bushnell sent his submarine, the Turtle, on a mission to sink Admiral Howe’s flagship Eagle.

• Bushnell convinced Washington to allow him to try to sink the ship with his invention.
• The Turtle was a submersible wooden vehicle.
• It was piloted by Sergeant Ezra Lee, who planned to move in close to the Eagle and attach bombs to the hull.
• Two whaleboats towed the Turtle into position. Lee submerged and moved under the Eagle, but he was unable to attach the bombs.
• Despite the failure, this was the only submarine attack that was tried during the war.

Nathan Hale Volunteers for a Spy Mission

Washington was desperate for information on the British movements on Long Island and asked Colonel Knowlton if any of his Rangers were willing to volunteer to cross enemy lines and acquire the information he needed. On September 8, 1776, Knowlton gathered his men together and explained the request.

• At first, no one volunteered. 
• It was a spy mission, and most of them felt spying was dishonorable. 
• It was also punishable by death, specifically by hanging, if a spy was caught in the act.
• One of the men said, “I am willing to be shot, but not to be hung.”

Finally, Nathan Hale, who had not yet seen action in the war, decided to volunteer for the mission. At the time, Hale was sick and barely able to stand. He was also inexperienced, and some of the officers doubted would be successful. Captain William Hull tried to convince Hale to change his mind, but he refused.

• Nathan Hale (1755–1776) — Hale was a Captain in the 19th Regiment of the Continental Army. He was born in Connecticut and attended Yale, where he became friends with Benjamin Tallmadge. Hale was working as a teacher when the war started. He joined the Connecticut Militia and participated in the Siege of Boston before going to New York with the army.

Washington Abandons New York City

With the Washington and his officers made the decision to withdraw from New York City and move further north on Manhattan Island. By this time, a significant amount of the army’s supplies had already been moved to Fort Washington. On September 8, 1776, Washington informed Congress of the decision, and that he intended to delay the British for as long as possible: 

“…the Enemy mean to Winter in New-York there can be no doubt; that with such an Armament they can drive us out is equally clear. The Congress having resolved, that it should not be destroyed, nothing seems to remain but to determine the time of their taking Possession. It is our Interest and wish to prolong it, as much as possible, provided the delay does not affect our further measures.”

Staten Island Peace Conference

During the delay in hostilities, the Howes hosted a dinner and invited General Sullivan, who was still being held prisoner, to join them. During dinner, Admiral Howe proposed the idea of discussing a diplomatic resolution to the war with members of Congress. 

The Howes prepared a proposal that included ending the blockade of American ports. Sullivan carried it to Philadelphia, where he delivered the proposal to Congress. Although the delegates were divided over the issue, they decided to send commissioners to meet with Admiral Howe.

On September 11, 1776, Admiral Howe hosted the conference on Staten Island.

Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge attended on behalf of the Continental Congress.

• Howe expressed appreciation for the monument honoring his brother George and emphasized his wish to reconcile the colonies with Britain.
• The Americans, having declared independence, were in the process of discussing alliances with France and the Netherlands.
• Howe admitted he only had the authority to grant pardons and make recommendations to British officials in London.
• The Staten Island Peace Conference ended quickly without an agreement.

Landing at Kip’s Bay

On the night of September 14–15, 1776, General Howe started moving his troops across the East River to Manhattan Island. The transport ships were protected by the guns of Admiral Howe’s warships, which bombarded American forces on Manhattan Island.

• The bombardment forced the Americans defending the shore to fall back.
• The British transports left from Newtown Creek and landed at Kip’s Bay with little opposition.
• Washington was four miles north of Kip’s Bay when he heard the sound of the cannons firing. He gathered his aides and rushed to the scene, where he was able to observe the landing.
• General Putnam responded by sending troops to reinforce the Americans on the shore, but there was confusion in the ranks.

After Washington arrived, he tried to organize a defensive line, but as the British advanced, the Americans panicked and fled. Washington was furious. Drawing his sword and pistols, he threatened the men who were fleeing past him. His aides had to restrain him, grab the reins of his horse, and take him to safety. 

Of this, General George Weeden wrote: “The General was so exasperated that he struck several officers in their flight, three times dashed his hat on the ground, and at last exclaimed, ‘Good God, have I got such troops as those!’ It was with difficulty his friends could get him to quit the field, so great was his emotions. He however got off safe, and all the troops as you may think. Nothing was left in York but about 700 barrels of flower and some old come of little consequence.”

AHC Notes

• George Weedon (1730–1793) — Weedon was a Virginia soldier and Continental Army officer during the American Revolutionary War. A Fredericksburg innkeeper and veteran of the French and Indian War, he joined the Continental Army and served in the New York Campaign, New Jersey Campaign, and the Philadelphia Campaign. He fought at Brandywine and Germantown, became a Brigadier General in 1777, helped organize resistance to British raids in Virginia, and commanded militia during the Yorktown Campaign.

After the Americans fled, General Howe ascended the high ground and watched as his army continued to execute its landing at Kip’s Bay. Meanwhile, Putnam and Washington met and agreed to withdraw American forces from New York City.

• Putnam returned to the city to start the evacuation.
• Putnam’s aide, Major Aaron Burr, helped lead the troops out of the city to the safety of Harlem Heights, near present-day Central Park.
• The British landing was completed around 5:00 p.m.

Mary Murray Delays the British

Once again, Howe failed to take advantage of his superior numbers and momentum. Instead of organizing his troops and pursuing the retreating Americans, he and his officers stopped at the home of Robert Murray, which was on a hill near Kip’s Bay.

• Murray’s wife, Mary, and their daughters entertained Howe and his staff with cake and wine.
• According to legend, the Murrays intentionally delayed Howe, distracting him from pursuing the Americans.
• They kept Howe there for two hours.
• The delay allowed Putnam and his troops to escape the city, which infuriated some of Howe’s junior officers, such as Henry Clinton, who wanted to be more aggressive.

After the Americans left the city, the British occupation started, as they camped near Bloomingdale Road and Horn’s Hook.

American Forces at Harlem Heights

The Americans marched north through the “Hollow Way” to Harlem Heights, and camped about a mile and a half north of the British. Heavy rains fell, and the men who did not have tents slept on wet ground.

• Greene’s division was at the front of the American defenses.
• Putnam and Spencer were behind Greene.

With no cavalry to scout enemy positions, Washington turned to Colonel Knowlton and his Rangers. Before the end of the night, he issued orders to Knowlton to lead his men out in the morning to gather intelligence on the British positions.

• AHC Note — The Hollow Way was a vale, or depression, at the base of Harlem Heights that ran North and South.

Nathan Hale’s Spy Mission Begins

On the night of September 15th, Nathan Hale left the American camp on Harlem Heights with two other men. They made their way to Connecticut and arrived on the 16th.

• Hale left his companions and then traveled to Long Island, New York City, and through the British camps over the next few days. 
• He pretended to be a schoolteacher from Connecticut looking for work, who was also unhappy with the “rebel cause.” 

Hale gathered information and made drawings and notes of the position, strength, and fortifications of the British forces. He put everything down on thin paper, and wrote his notes in Latin. He hid the papers in his shoes, under his soles.

The Battle of Harlem Heights

It was before dawn on September 16, 1776, when Colonel Knowlton and his men left the American camp. They moved south toward Bloomingdale Heights, crossed the Hollow Way, and climbed Claremont Hill.

• AHC Note — Claremont Hill is where the General Ulysses S. Grant National Memorial is located.

As they moved forward along the edge of a bluff, they were seen by British pickets from General Alexander Leslie’s command. The pickets fired their guns into the air to alert British and Hessian troops who were camped nearby.

• Knowlton and his men fired on the pickets and then took shelter behind a stone wall.
• The British formed a column and marched at them.
• After 30 minutes of fighting, Knowlton ordered his men to fall back to Harlem Heights.

The British followed, sounding their bugles as if they were on a fox hunt. On hearing the bugles, Washington’s aide, Adjutant General Joseph Reed, said, “I never felt such a sensation before; it seemed to crown our disgrace.” Reed went to Washington, who was writing a report to Congress, and volunteered to go find Knowlton and see if the British were marching on the American camp. Washington agreed, and Reed rode out to assess the situation.

Reed returned around 9:00 a.m., and suggested the British were preparing to attack, but it was a small force of about 300 men. Washington responded by sending Reed with two contingents to attack the oncoming British column:

• Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Crary led 150 men to carry out a diversionary attack on the front of the British column.
• Major Andrew Leitch led around 230 men to carry out a flank attack.

Crary attacked, forcing the British to stop their advance and take refuge behind fences and bushes. After Crary fell back, the British started to move forward again.

• Washington sent another 800 men to reinforce the Americans.
• Leitch and Reed moved into position to flank the British from the east. They were joined by Knowlton and his men.
• Some of the men in the flanking party fired too early, alerting the British to their presence.

The British and the American flanking party engaged each other near a fence. In the fight, Knowlton was killed, and Leitch was mortally wounded, forcing Reed into command. As the battle intensified, Washington sent more men into the fight, along with two artillery pieces. They joined Reed and helped push the British back toward a field near Barnard College.

• General Howe sent reinforcements, including two artillery pieces, to reinforce General Alexander Leslie.
• By noon, there were roughly 1,800 American troops in the field, including General Putnam, General Greene, and General George Clinton.

The two forces clashed in the field for roughly two hours, at times only about 100 yards apart. When the British ran low on ammunition, they fell back and eventually regrouped near the house where the British pickets had first fired on Knowlton and his men in the morning.

• The Americans pursued them until they came within range of the guns of the British ships on the Hudson River. 
• When the ships saw the Americans, they opened fire, forcing them to abandon their pursuit.

By this time, it was around 3:00 p.m. Howe sent General Cornwallis with 5,000 men to reinforce Leslie. With the British advance stopped, Washington called for his men to return to their camp, ending the Battle of Harlem Heights.

Nathan Hale Captured and Executed

Unfortunately for Nathan Hale, at some point during his mission, someone identified him and alerted the British. He was captured on September 20 as he prepared to sail across Long Island Sound.

• He was taken to General Howe’s headquarters and appeared before him on September 21.
• Howe had his men search Hale, and they found his drawings and papers.
• Howe responded by charging him with spying and sentenced him to be hanged the next morning.
• Hale was hanged the next morning, September 22.
• According to legend, when he was asked if he had any last words, he said, “I only regret that I have but one life to give for my country.”

The Great Fire of New York

On the night of September 20–21, a fire broke out in New York City. It started in a wooden house on a wharf near Whitehall Slip. A strong wind fanned the flames, which spread quickly because many of the buildings were constructed from wood.

• In the end, it destroyed 1,000 buildings — roughly 25% of the city.
• Citizens gathered what possessions they could and fled to the location of present-day City Hall Park.
• The fire burned into the next morning.

British officials believed the Americans started the fire; however, British and Hessian troops plundered some of the homes that did not burn. 

• Governor William Tryon said, “many circumstances lead to conjecture that Mr. Washington was privy to this villainous act.”
• General Gage wrote to Lord Germain and said, “…a most horrid attempt was made by a number of wretches to burn the town of New York…Many were detected in the fact, and some killed upon the spot by the enraged troops in garrison…The destruction is computed to be about one-quarter of the town; and we have reason to suspect there are villains still lurking there, ready to finish the work they had begun…”

In a letter to Congress, Washington denied having any knowledge of the cause of the fire.

American Fortifications on Manhattan Island

Following the Battle of Harlem Heights, Washington had his men improve the fortifications north of Harlem Heights and along the Hudson River. He believed those were the two areas where the British were likely to land troops and try to attack him. Meanwhile, Howe strengthened British fortifications on the north end of the city.

The British Attempt to Encircle the Americans

After failing to trap American forces on Brooklyn Heights and in New York City, the Howes decided to land troops north of Washington’s Army, believing it would cut the Americans off from the mainland and sever their supply lines to Connecticut.

Nearly three weeks after the Battle of Harlem Heights, General Howe finally moved. On October 9, two British ships sailed up the Hudson River again and safely moved past Fort Washington and Fort Lee.

This was the first step in another British attempt to encircle Washington and trap him between General Howe’s army and Admiral Howe’s fleet.

Action at Throg’s Neck

General Howe planned to have his troops transported up the East River and land them at Throg’s Neck, on the east side of Manhattan Island, eight miles from King’s Bridge. From there, he intended to flank Washington and avoid attacking the strong defensive works along Harlem Heights.

• Throg’s Neck was on the east side of Manhattan Island. 
• The location was once called Frog’s Point or Throck’s Point, and was named after John Throgmorton (or Throckmorton), who settled there in 1643. 
• There was a road that ran from Throg’s Neck to King’s Bridge.
• Today, the location is called Throggs Neck and is the southeast corner of the Bronx.

Howe believed this location would allow him to march across the island and move behind Washington. However, General Henry Clinton disagreed, arguing Howe should land his troops further north, near New Rochelle. Clinton believed the American defenses at New Rochelle were weaker than at Throg’s Neck. Howe disagreed, and Throg’s Neck was chosen as the place to land the troops.

On October 12, 1776, Howe’s men climbed onto transports that sailed through Hell Gate to Throg’s Neck. The first transports arrived around 9:00 a.m. The men disembarked and started marching inland. The British quickly discovered that Throg’s Neck was an island, separated from the mainland by a creek that was only passable in two places. 

1. On the upper side, there was a ford — an area where the water was low enough that the men could walk across. 
2. On the lower side, there was a causeway and a bridge. 

The British approached the bridge. However, the planks had been removed by Colonel Edward Hand and his men from the First Pennsylvania Rifle Regiment, who were hiding behind a woodpile. When the British approached, Hand and his men (25-30 total) opened fire. The British were surprised and fell back to the main column that was assembling. Some of the British tried to cross at the ford on the upper end, but they were met with resistance, and the Americans were able to hold the crossing. Soon after, reinforcements arrived with artillery.

• Colonel William Prescott and Captain-Lieutenant David Bryant joined Hand at the bridge.
• Captain John Graham and Captain Daniel Jackson reinforced the ford.

These reinforcements boosted the number of American troops to 1,800 — still less than half of the British. Later that night, Alexander McDougall arrived with more men.

• The British fell back to their transports and pulled away from the shore.
• American forces remained in the area to prevent another landing attempt.

Washington Abandons Manhattan Island

On October 14, 1776, General Charles Lee and his men joined Washington’s Army. The next day, Lieutenant Tench Tilghman wrote a letter to William Duer, a member of the New York Convention’s Committee of Correspondence. He informed Duer of Lee’s arrival and also said: “From the number of vessels that have been continually passing up the Sound we conclude that they are transporting cannon and stores necessary to enable them to penetrate the country and set down in our rear.”

As the threat of the British attacking from behind him increased, Washington met with his officers on October 16 for a Council of War. They decided they could not hold their position at Harlem Heights.

• They decided that the army would withdraw from Manhattan Island and move north to White Plains, along the hills west of the Bronx River. The call to abandon Manhattan was led by Charles Lee.
• Manhattan was not entirely abandoned, though, because they decided to leave Colonel Robert Magaw and his men to defend Fort Washington on the east bank of the Hudson River. Nathanael Greene drove this decision.

On October 17, Washington’s men started the march to White Plains. General William Alexander led the first troops to leave Harlem Heights. The Americans crossed over the Harlem River using the King’s Bridge and moved along the west side of the Bronx River toward White Plains. The entire army took four days to make the move.

• Tench Tilghman (1744–1786) — Born in Maryland, Tilghman served as a commissioner to the Iroquois Confederacy before joining General Washington’s staff in August 1776. Although most of Tilghman’s family remained loyal to the Crown, Washington trusted him. Tilghman served as his secretary for the remainder of the war. Tilghman knew French, which made him a valuable asset in communicating with Lafayette, Von Steuben, and other French officers.
• William Duer (1743–1799) — Duer was born in England and first traveled to New York in 1768. He reluctantly sided with the Patriot Cause and became a member of the Provincial Congress in 1775. Duer helped write the first New York Constitution and served as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress, where he was a member of the Board of War with John Adams and Robert Morris.

The Battle of Pell’s Point

On October 18, 1776, Howe withdrew from Throg’s Neck and landed his troops three miles further north at Pell’s Point (Pelham Bay), near New Rochelle (the location General Henry Clinton had suggested).

• Howe’s plan was to land his men, push through any American defenses at Pell’s Point, and intercept Washington’s Army while it was moving from Harlem Heights to White Plains. 
• The landing was directed by General Clinton and General Charles Cornwallis.
• The British Light Infantry marched inland, where the American forces led by Colonel John Glover were prepared to engage them.

Glover and his men were from Marblehead, Massachusetts, and were known as the “Marblehead Mariners” or the “Marblehead Men.” They had already saved Washington’s Army once by transporting it from Long Island to Manhattan Island after the Battle of Long Island.

• The Marblehead Men were at St. Paul’s Church in Mt. Vernon, New York, near the center of Manhattan Island, and northwest of Pell’s Point.
• Additional Massachusetts troops were with them, including those led by Colonel Joseph Read, Colonel William Shepard, and Colonel Loammi Baldwin.
• Glover was awake early and went to the top of a nearby hill to see the area. From there, he saw the British at Pell’s Point.

Glover sent a messenger to General Charles Lee in the American camp, but did not wait for orders. Instead, Glover sent an advance force to skirmish with the British and delay them. Then, he set up an ambush by placing men behind stone walls near the road.

• AHC Note — These stone walls were not alongside the road. They were off to the sides, and dotted the countryside.

Glover’s advance force engaged the British, who pushed forward and were caught in the American ambush. This action initiated the Battle of Pell’s Point. The British suffered heavy casualties and fell back to the main column that was gathering. Glover’s men held their positions until 4,000 British troops marched toward them, under covering fire from cannons. 

• The Americans were still hiding behind stone walls and were protected from the bombardment. 
• The British advanced again, and when they were about 150 feet away, the Americans stood up and fired. 
• This time, the British held their ground, and both sides fired on each other for about 20 minutes before Glover and his men fell back to the next line of stone walls.

This sequence of events was repeated more than 15 times, until the British advance stopped. Afterward, the two sides traded artillery fire until darkness fell.

• Glover was able to delay the British advance, giving Washington enough time to complete moving 13,000 troops from Harlem Heights to White Plains, which was completed on October 21.
• Howe did not pursue Glover. He stopped to wait for General Wilhelm von Knyphausen to reinforce him and for British ships to deliver supplies.
• Hessian soldiers occupied St. Paul’s Church, which was also used as a hospital.

The British stopped around East Chester and New Rochelle until October 22, which put them about eight miles south of White Plains.

Knyphausen Arrives

Meanwhile, General Howe received additional reinforcements on October 18, 1776. 120 ships arrived carrying Lieutenant General Wilhelm von Knyphausen and nearly 4,700 Hessians. They were accompanied by 3,400 British troops.

American Scouting Mission

As the American Army moved to White Plains, Washington sent Colonel Joseph Reed and Colonel Rufus Putnam to scout the British Army’s movements and positions.

• They set out from King’s Bridge with 20 men on the morning of October 20, 1776.
• They went to the heights at East Chester, where they saw British troops near the church and found the houses were deserted.
• Reed decided to leave and return to the American camp.
• Putnam continued the mission, and rode by himself north toward White Plains.

As he rode along, he was told the British were at New Rochelle. When he was three or four miles from White Plains, he came across some “friends to the cause” who gave him more details. Putnam recalled:

“…the main body of the British lay near New Rochelle, from thence to White Plains about nine miles, good roads and in general level open country, that at White Plains was a large quantity of stores, with only about three hundred militia to guard them, that the British had a detachment at Mamaroneck only six miles from White Plains, and from White Plains only five miles to the North River, where lay five or six of the enemies ships and sloops, tenders, etc. Having made these discoveries, I set out on my return.”

• Putnam returned to the American camp and reported this information to Washington around 9:00 p.m.

The Battle of Mamaroneck

American forces withdrew from Mamaroneck, New York, roughly 12 miles southeast of White Plains. Major Robert Rogers, a hero of the French and Indian War, and his Loyalists, known as the “Queen’s American Rangers,” moved into the area to carry out attacks on American militia forces and supply depots.

• On October 22, 1776, Colonel John Haslet led an expedition of approximately 750 American troops, including men from his Delaware regiment, Virginia, and Maryland, from White Plains to Rogers’s camp near Mamaroneck.
• Rogers had a sentry and 60 men in positions outside of his main camp. 
• Haslet’s advance force took the sentry by surprise but was then surprised by Rogers’s men, who were hiding, and the battle started.
• The Americans overwhelmed the Loyalists, took prisoners, and captured weapons and supplies. 
• When the sounds of battle reached Rogers’s camp, his men quickly ran to join the fight. 
• The Loyalists chased the Americans away, ending the Battle of Mamaroneck.

The American Army at White Plains

American forces made their way to White Plains. General William Alexander’s was one of the first to move out, arriving around 9:00 a.m. on October 21, 1776. Washington and General William Heath followed and were later joined by General John Sullivan and General Charles Lee. Once the army was gathered at White Plains, Washington organized it into seven divisions led by:

1. Charles Lee
2. Nathanael Greene
3. William Heath
4. John Sullivan
5. Israel Putnam
6. Joseph Spencer
7. Benjamin Lincoln

Washington set up two lines of defensive trenches on hills overlooking the town and waited for Howe to approach and attack. The line was organized as follows:

• Heath commanded the left from Hatfield Hill, next to a swamp. 
• Washington was at the center, near the town.
• Putnam commanded the right from Purdy Hill, next to the Bronx River.

The forts on the banks of the Hudson River were also heavily garrisoned by American troops:

• Colonel Robert Magaw and 1,500-2,000 men defended Fort Washington, the last American position on Manhattan Island.
• Greene and 3,500-4,500 men defended Fort Lee, directly across the Hudson River from Fort Washington.

Another Disagreement Between Howe and Clinton

Meanwhile, General Howe and General Henry Clinton disagreed on the plan for attacking the Americans at White Plains.

• Howe wanted to launch a direct assault on the Americans.
• Clinton preferred a flank attack.

Howe agreed to a compromise that divided his army into two columns — one for a direct assault and another for a flank attack.

Failed Attack on Fort Washington

On October 27, 1776, British troops under the command of General Hugh Percy tried to sail up the Hudson and launch an attack on Fort Washington, but they were forced to turn back after being bombarded by the guns from Fort Washington and Fort Lee. Percy could not return fire because the guns on his ships could not elevate high enough to fire on the forts.

Skirmish at White Plains

On the night of October 27–28, 1776, British forces under the command of General Alexander Leslie and General Leopold Philip de Heister marched west toward the Bronx River, on the far right of the American line. They had 4,000 men under their command, most of whom were Hessians.

Washington responded by sending General Joseph Spencer and roughly 1,000-1,500 men to block the British advance. Spencer’s men crossed the river, hid behind stone walls, and waited for the British to approach. 

• When the British were about 100 feet away, the Americans rose and opened fire. 
• The Hessians at the front of the column were scattered.

The fight continued, and a contingent of Hessian troops led by Colonel Johann Rall threatened to flank the Americans on their left. The Americans fell back to another wall and continued to fire. Once again, Rall threatened to flank them on the left, and they retreated to the next wall. This continued until the Americans reached Chatterton Hill. From there, they fired down on Rall and his men, who were forced to take cover on a small hill just south of Chatterton Hill.

• AHC Note — Chatterton Hill was on the west side of the Bronx River, almost directly across from Purdy Hill, where General Putnam was located.

Benjamin Tallmadge, who was with Spencer’s men, recalled: “At the dawn of day, the Hessian column advanced within musket shot of our troops, when a full discharge of musketry warned them of their danger. At first they fell back, but rallied again immediately, and the column of British troops having advanced upon our left, made it necessary to retire. As stone walls were frequent, our troops occasionally formed behind them, and poured a destructive fire into the Hessian ranks.”

While this skirmish was taking place, Washington sent troops to occupy Chatterton Hill. This extended the right side of the American line to the hill. However, the presence of the Bronx River between Chatterton Hill and Purdy Hill separated the right of the American line from the center. Spencer and his men were joined on Chatterton Hill by:

• Colonel John Haslet and his Delaware Regiment.
• General Alexander McDougall and his New York Regiment.
• Colonel William Smallwood and his Maryland Regiment.
• Colonel Charles Webb and his Maryland Regiment.
• Colonel John Brooks and his Massachusetts militia.
• Colonel Morris Graham and his New York troops.
• Colonel Rudolph Ritzema and his New York troops.

Captain Alexander Hamilton was sent with two artillery pieces to the hill, while Colonel Rufus Putnam and his men were sent to dig trenches. As the senior officer, General McDougall was in command, and he organized a defensive line that ran across the ridge. The Americans faced southeast, toward the plain, where British forces continued to gather and opened fire on the hill with artillery. 

Colonel Putnam wrote about this bombardment, saying, “October 28th the British advanced in front of our lines at White Plains about 10 o’clock A.M. I had just arrived on Chatterton Hill in order to throw up some works when they hove in sight; as soon as they discovered us they commenced a severe cannonade but without any effect of consequence.”

Haslet said, “We had not been many minutes on the ground when the cannonade began, and the second shot wounded a militia-man in the thigh, upon which the whole regiment broke and fled immediately, and were not rallied without much difficulty. Soon after, General McDougall’s brigade took post behind us.”

The Battle of White Plains

General Howe marched his army, which included General Clinton (on his left) and General Heister (on his right), in front of the center of Washington’s Army at White Plains. However, instead of attacking Washington, Howe sent 4,000 men to assault Chatterton Hill. This contingent included British Regulars on the right, Hessians in the center, and Hessians on the left.

• General Alexander Leslie led the right.
• Colonel Carl von Donop led the center.
• Colonel Johann Rall led the left. 

As these men marched toward the hill, British artillery opened fire and bombarded the Americans, opening the Battle of White Plains. Leslie and his men reached the hill first, on the east side, and made a failed bayonet charge. Hessians followed Leslie’s men and also failed to take the hill.

Rall and his men attacked the Americans on the west side of the hill and were followed by British Dragoons (infantry on horses). The Americans panicked at the sight of the Dragoons, and the line started to scatter, forcing General McDougall to order his men to retreat from Chatterton Hill.

• Haslet and his Delaware men formed the rear guard and covered the retreat. 
• Colonel John Glover and his men were on the east side of the hill and held the British back, allowing McDougall’s men to safely retreat to White Plains. 
• Hamilton’s artillery also helped keep the British from pushing further toward White Plains.

After taking the hill, Howe ended the day’s attack. On October 30, British reinforcements arrived, led by General Hugh Percy and General Wilhelm von Knyphausen. This gave Howe roughly 30,000 troops, and he made plans to attack Washington on October 31. However, a strong storm moved in that lasted for nearly a day. The weather prevented Howe from launching his attack and gave Washington time to withdraw to North Castle, five miles north of White Plains and 25 miles north of Fort Washington.

• Limited fighting continued in the area around White Plains for several days, including an artillery engagement between the British and General William Heath’s troops on November 1.

While Howe occupied White Plains and Chatterton Hill, British ships made their way up the Hudson River, toward the two American forts.

• General Washington sent some of his men from North Castle to Fort Lee, and the garrison remained at Fort Washington.
• The Americans built defensive works at North Castle.

Traitor at Fort Washington

On November 2, Ensign William Demont from Colonel Magaw’s 5th Pennsylvania, deserted Fort Washington. He delivered a detailed plan of its defenses to General Hugh Percy, who sent a messenger with the information to General Howe at White Plains.

In 1792, Demont recalled his treason in a letter he wrote from London: “…On the 2nd of November 1776, I sacrificed all I was worth in the world to the service of my King and country, and joined the then Lord Percy, brought in with me the plans of Fort Washington, by which plans that fortress was taken by his Majesty’s troops the 16 instant, together with 2700 prisoners and stores and ammunition to the amount of 1800 pounds. At the same time I may with justice affirm, from my knowledge of the works I saved the lives of many of his Majesty’s subjects. These, Sir, are facts well known to every General Officer which was there.”

Howe Changes Direction

Howe felt the American defensive works at North Castle were too strong to attack. With the new information from General Percy, he turned his attention to King’s Bridge and Fort Washington. He believed that if he could capture them, New York would be secure and he could put in motion a plan to march to Philadelphia and capture the American capital. 

British forces started to withdraw from White Plains on the night of November 4–5, 1776.

The Americans were relieved to learn the British were withdrawing.

• Howe sent a contingent of troops to occupy the heights north of Spuyten Duyvil, NY and then took the rest of the army to Dobbs Ferry, NY, on the eastern shore of the Hudson River.
• These movements made it clear to Washington that Howe intended to attack Fort Washington and then Fort Lee.
• On November 5, three British ships safely passed by the American forts. This proved that Howe could place his army anywhere along the river and still receive supplies.

Washington and his officers held a Council of War on November 6. They decided to maintain the garrison at Fort Washington and send more troops to Fort Lee, Peekskill, and the Hudson Highlands. 

• Washington took 2,000 men and marched to Fort Lee. Upon arrival, there were about 2,700 men at both forts, which were both under the command of Nathanael Greene.
• Charles Lee was sent to the east side of the Hudson River to defend against a British attack that could open a door to an invasion of New England. Lee had around 7,000 men at North Castle on the Croton River.
• William Heath and around 3,000 men were sent to Peekskill, New York, to defend the path in the Hudson Highlands.

AHC Notes

• Washington’s main forces at North Castle and the critical post at Fort Washington were approximately 25 miles apart, with Howe’s Army between them.
• Congress sent letters to Washington, asking him to hold Fort Washington, despite the disposition of his forces.
• During this time, General Horatio Gates was at Fort Ticonderoga in upstate New York with about 6,000 men.

Despite assurances from Putnam, Greene, and Magaw that Fort Washington could be held, Washington was skeptical, and the passage of the British ships on November 5 concerned him. 

On November 8, he wrote to Greene, saying, “If we cannot prevent Vessels passing up, and the Enemy are possessed of the surrounding Country, what valuable purpose can it answer to hold a Post of which the expected Benefit cannot be had; I am therefore inclined to think it will not be prudent to hazard the men and Stores at Mount Washington, but as you are on the Spot leave it to you to give such Orders as to evacuating Mount Washington as you Judge best.”

• On the night of November 8–9, a small group of 25-30 Hessian troops advanced on Fort Washington, but the Americans drove them away.
• On November 13, Washington met with Greene at Fort Lee. Washington continued to express doubts about defending Fort Washington, but left the decision to Greene.

Magaw continued to believe he could hold the fort, and that he could even withstand a month-long siege. In preparation for an attack, he placed men on a line between King’s Bridge and Harlem:

• Colonel Moses Rawlings and 250 riflemen from Maryland and Pennsylvania were sent to Forest Hill at the north end of the line
• Lieutenant Colonel John Cadwalader was sent south to Harlem Heights with the 3rd and 5th Pennsylvania regiments.
• Colonel Israel Hutchinson and the 27th Massachusetts Regiment were also sent south to Harlem.
• Colonel William Baxter was sent to Laurel Hill, east of the fort, with his Bucks County Militia.

The Battle of Fort Washington

Howe moved toward Fort Washington and was joined by General Wilhelm von Knyphausen and his forces. Howe planned to attack the fort with 13,000 men, divided into three columns, with aid from two warships on the Hudson River. 

1. Howe and Knyphausen would attack from the north at Forest Hill.
2. General Hugh Percy would attack from the south.
3. General Charles Cornwallis and General Edward Matthew would attack from the east.

A fourth attack, by the 42nd Highlanders, was planned as a distraction. Howe intended to attack on November 12, 1776, but poor weather delayed him once again.

On November 15, Howe sent an officer to Fort Washington under a flag of truce with a message for Magaw, requesting his surrender. Magaw refused and sent a letter back to Howe, saying he was “…determined to defend this post to the very last extremity.”

The next morning, November 16, Washington, Greene, Putnam, and General Hugh Mercer crossed the Hudson, intending to meet with Colonel Magaw and inspect the fort. However, just after they landed, British artillery batteries on land and from their ships in the river opened fire on the fort and all American positions between it and Harlem Heights. 

Greene wrote: “There we all stood in a very awkward situation. As the disposition was made and the enemy advancing, we durst not attempt to make any new disposition; indeed, we saw nothing amiss. We all urged his excellency to come off. I offered to stay. General Putnam did the same, and so did General Mercer; but his excellency thought it best for us all to come off together, which we did, about half an hour before the enemy surrounded the fort.”

The British bombardment lasted for two hours, while Howe’s ground forces held their positions. Finally, around 10:00 a.m., all three British columns moved forward:

1. Knyphausen and Rall attacked Colonel Rawlings at Forest Hill (north).
2. Cornwallis attacked Colonel Baxter’s position at Laurel Hill (east).
3. Percy pushed through the Hollow Way at Harlem Heights and attacked Lieutenant Colonel John Cadwalader (south).

Despite fierce fighting over the next two hours, especially from Rawlings and his men, American forces were driven back toward Fort Washington. Howe intensified his attack by sending the 42nd Highlanders into battle. Knyphausen and Rall pushed to within 100 yards of the fort, and Knyphausen sent a messenger, who demanded Magaw’s surrender.

• At least 2,500 American troops had taken refuge in the crowded fort.
• Magaw realized that if the British attacked, hundreds of men would be killed.
• Magaw negotiated the terms of surrender that guaranteed the safety of his officers and men, and allowed them to keep their personal belongings.

During the surrender ceremony, the Americans marched out of the fort, gave up their flag, and stacked their weapons. Magaw handed his sword to Knyphausen.

• AHC Note — The capture of Fort Washington marked the end of the New York Campaign and was the second-worst defeat for American forces during the war. The worst came at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1780, where General Benjamin Lincoln surrendered 5,500 men to General Henry Clinton, ending the Siege of Charleston.

End of the New York Campaign

Tench Tilghman wrote to the New York Provincial Congress and informed the members of the loss of Fort Washington. He was critical of both Washington and Greene, saying, “The loss of the post is nothing compared to the loss of men and arms, and the damp it will strike upon the minds of many. We were in a fair way of finishing the campaign with credit to ourselves and I think to the disgrace of Mr. Howe, and had the General followed his own opinion the garrison would have been withdrawn immediately upon the enemy’s falling down from Dobb’s Ferry; but Gen’l Greene was positive that our forces might at any time be drawn off under the guns of Fort Lee. Fatal experience has evinced the contrary.”

Despite the loss, Washington hoped to maintain his positions and remain a threat to British forces in New York City. His forces remained divided between North Castle, Peekskill, and Fort Lee.

• General Charles Lee was at North Castle, New York, with his division, along with General John Sullivan and his division and General John Spencer and his division.
• General William Heath had four brigades at Peekskill, New York.
• Washington and General Nathanael Greene were at Fort Lee in New Jersey, across from Fort Washington.

The New York Campaign was over. Despite the victory at Harlem Heights and several daring escapes, it was a series of disappointing, often embarrassing defeats for General Washington and the American Army. Washington’s situation was further complicated by a lack of supplies, deserters, and expiring enlistments. There was a very real possibility that his army could collapse at any moment, likely ending the war and restoring British control over America.

The New Jersey Campaign Begins

From late August through mid-November 1776, General Howe had wasted several opportunities to use his advantages and press Washington. However, following the surrender of Fort Washington, he acted quickly and sent General Charles Cornwallis to attack Fort Lee on the night of November 19. 

• This attack was the start of the New Jersey Campaign and Washington’s Retreat Through New Jersey.
• British forces pursued Washington across New Jersey, forcing him into Pennsylvania.
• General Howe ended the pursuit and sent his troops into winter quarters in New York City and at various outposts in New Jersey. He also sent General Clinton to seize and occupy Newport, Rhode Island.
• Washington eventually received enough reinforcements to carry out a bold plan to cross the Delaware River on Christmas Night 1776, and attack a Hessian garrison at Trenton.
• The surprise attack succeeded and likely saved the army, the Revolution, and the independent United States of America.

British Occupation of New York City

From 1776 to 1783, British forces occupying New York City faced many challenges, as it became a haven for Loyalists. 

• In the absence of civil courts, British soldiers and officials often committed abuses and crimes against civilians without consequence.
• Corruption and profiteering were widespread within the British Army, which undermined the trust Loyalists had in British officials.
• The city’s economy suffered from hyperinflation, as well as shortages of shelter, food, and supplies.

In the latter years of the war, attempts to reestablish civil law did little to restore British credibility with the Loyalist population.

Despite maintaining control of the city, the need to defend it over the next seven years contributed to their eventual defeat in the war.

• British forces, tied up in New York, could not aid Burgoyne at Saratoga (1777) or Cornwallis at Yorktown (1781), two decisive American victories that turned the tide of the war.
• On November 25, 1783, the British peacefully evacuated New York, allowing Washington to reenter the city victoriously, reclaiming it after seven years of British occupation.

Timeline

• March 17, 1776 — The Siege of Boston ended.
• June 28, 1776 — Thomas Hickey was publicly hanged for his involvement in a plot to assassinate General Washington.
• July 4, 1776 — Congress issued the Declaration of Independence.
• August 27, 1776 — British forces won the Battle of Long Island and pinned Washington’s Army in on Brooklyn Heights.
• August 29, 1776 — American forces successfully evacuated Brooklyn Heights, crossing the East River to Manhattan Island.
• September 6, 1776 — An American submarine, the Turtle, failed to sink Admiral Howe’s flagship.
• September 11, 1776 — The Staten Island Peace Conference failed to end hostilities.
• September 15, 1776 — British forces landed at Kip’s Bay, leading to the occupation of New York City.
• September 16, 1776 — American forces won the Battle of Harlem Heights.
• September 20, 1776 — The Great Fire of New York started.
• September 22, 1776 — Captain Nathan Hale of Connecticut was executed by the British for spying.
• October 12, 1776 — British forces failed to land at Throg’s Neck.
• October 18, 1776 — British forces landed at Pell’s Point.
• October 22, 1776 — Americans attacked Robert Rogers and his Rangers near their camp at Mamaroneck, New York.
• October 28, 1776 — After the Battle of White Plains, American forces retreated to North Castle, New York.
• November 16, 1776 — British forces captured Fort Washington, forcing the Americans to retreat across the Hudson River into New Jersey.

AP US History

Definition

New York Campaign (1776) — The New York Campaign was a major British campaign to capture New York City and defeat George Washington’s Continental Army. At the Battle of Long Island, British forces outflanked the Americans, but Washington successfully evacuated his army across the East River. The British then captured New York City after landing at Kips Bay, while an American success at Harlem Heights improved morale. After Washington withdrew through Westchester County, the British captured Fort Washington and about 2,800 prisoners. Although Britain secured New York, Washington preserved the core of his army to continue the American war effort.

Alignment

• 3.5 — The American Revolution
• America Secedes from the Empire (1775–1783)