Burning of Norfolk

Overview

Following the Battle of Great Bridge (December 9, 1775), John Murray, Lord Dunmore, and the Governor of Virginia withdrew to Norfolk, Virginia, the largest town in the colony. He took his small army with him, which included British Regulars, Loyalist Militia, and slaves who pledged to fight for him in exchange for their freedom. These slaves were known as the “Royal Ethiopian Regiment.” Dunmore and his troops took refuge on a flotilla of ships in the harbor.

On December 13, American forces led by Colonel William Woodford occupied Norfolk and refused to allow the British to enter the town to retrieve or purchase supplies. Woodford was joined by Colonel Robert Howe. The Americans proceeded to fire on the ships, forcing Dunmore and his men to remain in the harbor. 

On January 1, Dunmore’s ships opened fire on the town while troops were transported to the shore with orders to burn warehouses. The Americans engaged the landing parties and set fire to the homes of known Loyalists.

British forces were forced to withdraw, ending Dunmore’s hopes of regaining control of the town. Dunmore eventually sailed to Gwynn Island, near the mouth of the Rappahannock River, and established a base for his operations.

Essential Facts

• Date: January 1, 1776.
• Location: Norfolk, Virginia.
• Participants: United Colonies, Great Britain.
• Key American Leaders: Robert Howe, William Woodford.
• Key British Leaders: John Murray, Henry Bellew.
• Who Won: Inconclusive.
• Part of: Virginia Colony, American Revolutionary War (1775–1783).

Key Details

• Nearly all buildings in Norfolk were burned to the ground. 
• The Virginia Convention ordered American forces to burn the rest of the town.
• British forces withdrew and eventually established a base at Gwynne’s Island. 
• Americans used the incident to accuse the British of atrocities.

Significance

The Burning of Norfolk is important to American History for its role in shaping attitudes against Loyalists and the British in the early days of the American Revolutionary War. Although British forces started some of the fires that ultimately burned most of the town, Americans were responsible for setting more fires and destroying more buildings. Americans used the Burning of Norfolk as an example of Great Britain’s willingness to use violence against the King’s subjects.

History

After the American victory at Great Bridge, John Murray, Lord Dunmore, and the Royal Governor of Virginia abandoned Norfolk and took refuge on a fleet of ships in the harbor.

Soon after, the town surrendered to American forces, led by Colonel William Woodford, who then occupied it. Woodford was joined by Colonel Robert Howe, who took command of the American forces.

• The Americans posted sentries along the shoreline, who taunted the British on the ships, while snipers occasionally fired at the ships.
• The 28-gun HMS Liverpool, under Captain Henry Bellew, arrived on December 28 with 400 Royal Marines. It was accompanied by a supply ship, the Maria.
• However, the British were still in need of supplies.
• On December 30, Bellew told the Americans that he wanted to buy supplies,
• However, he said he would take them by force, if necessary, and suggested the women and children should evacuate Norfolk.
• On December 31, most of the inhabitants fled to safety outside the town.

British Attack on Norfolk

The British fleet, under orders from Lord Dunmore, started to bombard Norfolk on January 1, 1776. American forces returned fire and engaged British landing parties.

• Some sources indicate the bombardment started around 3:15 a.m. on January 1 and lasted until 2:00 a.m. on January 2. However, others say it lasted for 25 hours.
• During the attack, both British and American forces set fire to buildings in the town, leading to the destruction of two-thirds of the buildings in Norfolk.
• Rumors spread that the British were entirely responsible for the fire.
• The destruction of Norfolk increased support for independence in Virginia and other colonies.

AHC Notes

• On April 19, 1776, Reverend Jonas Clarke of Lexington delivered a sermon that included his narrative of the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Clarke also listed atrocities committed by the British since the start of the war, including the Burning of Norfolk.
• Robert Howe (1732–1796) was a soldier from North Carolina. He rose to the rank of Major General in the Continental Army and was appointed Commander of the Southern Department in 1777. After leading a failed expedition in Florida, he was replaced by Benjamin Lincoln.
• William Woodford (1735–1780) was a soldier from Virginia who led Patriot forces during the Battle of Hampton, the Battle of Great Bridge, and the Burning of Norfolk. He rose to the rank of Brigadier General in the Continental Army and was taken prisoner after British forces won the Siege of Charleston (1780).

British Assault on Norfolk

Lord Dunmore took action because American forces blocked his access to supplies in the town. Further, discussions over a prisoner exchange failed.

• Meanwhile, American riflemen fired on the British ships anchored offshore.
• Irritated by the Americans, Dunmore decided to take action.
• He had his ships bombard the town to protect his troops while they were transported from his ships to land.

The British attack was disorganized, and the ships did not coordinate their landings, which helped the Americans repel them. However, the British set fire to buildings near the shore that the Americans were using for protection.

• The fire spread quickly to other buildings along the shore.
• Some civilians were killed while trying to escape the burning buildings.

Destruction of Norfolk

Americans did not try to stop the fire and actually increased the destruction by setting fire to buildings owned by Loyalists. It is believed that many of them wanted revenge against Loyalists living in Norfolk.

• The British continued to try to land troops on shore until January 3.
• Colonel Woodford ended the destruction on January 3.
• However, by that time, nearly two-thirds of Norfolk had burned.
• Most of the damage was done by American actions, not British ones.
• It is estimated that Americans destroyed 863 buildings, valued at roughly  £120,000, while British forces damaged 19 buildings, worth about £3,000.

Historian H.R. Eckenrode described the Burning of Norfolk in The Revolution in Virginia (1916):

“The fires began by balls and landing-parties, spread with great rapidity, because the provincial soldiers, instead of attempting to extinguish them, seized the opportunity to plunder and destroy on their own behalf, determined, as they said, ‘to make hay while the sun shines.’ Breaking into rum-shops and warehouses, many of them soon became drunk and went in gangs from house to house, smashing in doors, dragging out spoils, and then applying the torch. Household goods of every kind were sold in the street for a song to anybody willing to buy. The destruction caused by the ships was confined to the waterfront, but the Virginia soldiers involved the whole place in the catastrophe. On January 2, 1776, when the firing had ceased, the riflemen continued their work of rapine without interference on the part of their officers — apparently even with their connivance. Only on the third day did Woodford put an end to the sack by forbidding the burning of houses under severe penalty, but by that time, more than two-thirds of Norfolk was in ashes. In February 1776, the remainder was destroyed by order of the convention to deprive Dunmore of shelter.”

Howe and Woodford Conceal the Truth

Following the battle, Howe and Woodford did not reveal all the details about the destruction of Norfolk to the Virginia Convention.

• Robert Howe delivered his report to the Convention on January 13.
• Howe did not explain how Norfolk was actually destroyed and recommended tearing down the rest of the town because he did not have enough men to continue holding it.
• The Virginia Convention and Committee of Safety hesitated but eventually agreed to burn the rest of the town on January 15.
• On February 6, the remaining buildings were burned.
• According to legend, the only things that survived were the brick walls of St. Paul’s Episcopal Church. However, a sketch Benjamin Latrobe drew in the 1790s showed additional ruins.

Dunmore’s Report

Lord Dunmore published a report on the indecent in his newspaper, the Virginia Gazette, on January 15 (see Appendix below). The report provided details regarding the Americans burning buildings.

• The Committee of Safety responded by ordering Howe to conduct an investigation, but no action was taken.
• In 1777, petitions from Norfolk residents brought the issue back to the attention of Virginia officials.
• An article in Pinckney’s Virginia Gazette (see Appendix) said the fire quickly spread due to strong winds.

Virginia’s Investigation

• The legislature formed a commission to investigate the destruction and was able to confirm that American troops caused much of the damage.
• Compensation was given to victims who were not Loyalists.
• The report was not published by the Virginai House of Delegates until 1836.

The report may have been concealed to maintain the narrative that the British had been directed to burn the town by officials in London. 

Cassell’s History of the United States, Vol. 2 (1874–1877) links the Burning of Norfolk to the Burning of Falmouth (October 18, 1775). Author Edmund Ollier acknowledges that British officials did not issue orders to burn American towns. However, he places the blame on Dunmore for the destruction of Norfolk and subsequent attacks on Loyalists in Virginia.

“Falmouth, in Maine, had already been burnt by Lieutenant Mowat, and a rumour had obtained currency that the British Government had given orders for the burning of all towns which could be reached by the navy. But it is now well known that no such orders were issued…

Dunmore acted on his own sense of what was necessary for the assertion of his power, and must be visited with the whole blame of his angry and brutal mistake It was not long ere he discovered that, so far from subduing the malcontents, he had made their opposition all the more extreme and bitter; for they soon, by way of retaliation, proceeded to burn the houses and plantations of the loyal.”

Burning of Gosport and Dunmore’s Retreat

• The Americans burned Gosport on February 8, 1776, to keep Dunmore from using it as a base of operations.
• Gosport was on the other side of the harbor, across from Norfolk.
• The 44-gun HMS Roebuck arrived, increasing Dunmore’s fleet to roughly 70 ships.
• He established a base at Tucker’s Point — present-day Hospital Point — near Norfolk.
• In May, he moved the fleet to Gwynn’s Island in the Chesapeake Bay so supply ships could reach him.
• American forces bombarded the fleet on July 9 and inflicted heavy damage on the British fleet.
• Dunmore sailed away in August 1776, leaving Virginia under the control of the Virginia Convention.

Appendix

British View of the Burning of Norfolk

This newspaper article describing the Burning of Norfolk is taken from American Archives, edited by Peter Force. The original appeared in Lord Dunmore’s Virginia Gazette and was printed on the ship Dunmore before Dunmore withdrew to Gwynn Island. Please note that minor text corrections have been made.

“FROM THE VIRGINIA GAZETTE, PRINTED ON BOARD THE SHIP DUNMORE, LYING OFF NORFOLK.

Soon after the arrival of the Liverpool frigate from England, Captain Bellew sent a flag of truce, and demanded to be informed, whether His Majesty’s ships-of-war would be supplied from the shore with provisions. 

The reply being in the negative, and the ships in the harbour being continually annoyed by firing from the Rebels, out of that part of the town next the water, rendered it necessary to destroy if, and dislodge them from the houses they occupied, directly under the muzzles of the ship’s guns. 

Accordingly, previous notice being given to the inhabitants, in order that the women, children, and innocent persons, might have time to remove out of danger, on the 1st instant, about four o’clock in the afternoon, the Liverpool, frigate, the Otter and Kingfisher, sloops-of-war, with the Governor’s ship, Dunmore, began to cannonade the town, and, in the mean time, a few men were landed in boats, who set fire to the houses next the water.

As the wind was moderate, and from the shore, it was judged with certainty that the destruction would end with that part of the town next the water, which the King’s ships meant only should be fired; but the Rebels cruelly and unnecessarily completed the destruction of the whole town, by setting fire to the houses in the streets back, which were before safe from the flames.

The ill-judged and misapplied fury, discharged upon the weak and the innocent, was not confined to the town. The country around, for several days, was illuminated with the fires of the houses they burnt, amongst which is the distillery, about three miles from the town, a work of great value and public utility, with a large stock of rum and molasses.

The ships continued firing, with intervals, till about ten o’clock next morning, during which the ardour of the men could not be repressed; and, notwithstanding all possible care taken to prevent them, a few boats went on shore, where they exchanged some shot with the enemy’s parties, and had three or four men slightly, and one mortally, wounded. Several accounts concur that the enemy had eighteen killed and about forty men wounded.”

American View of the Burning of Norfolk

This article from Pinckney’s Virginia Gazette is available in the Colonial Williamsburg Archives. Please note that minor text corrections have been made.

“By an express from Norfolk, and letters from Colonel Howe, we learn, that all the ships and tenders which had been drawn up close to the town with springs on their cables began a heavy fire at 3 o’clock in the evening of Monday last, that after about an hour’s firing, a few boats were sent ashore under cover of the cannon, and concealed by their smoke, which was blown in on the shore, and several houses were set on fire in different places along the river, that this was done so suddenly, and amidst so much smoke and noise, that it was impossible to prevent it; that the wind being favourable to their design, the flames spread with great rapidity, and when the fire had run to a great extent, and our enemies imagined they had spread confusion and terror amongst our young troops, by such an incessant canonnade as they had kept up, and by the conflagration around them, they attempted to land a number of men in different parts of the town, but were repulsed with considerable loss in every attempt; all our centinels and guards kept their posts notwithstanding, and had pretty smartly chastised those who set fire to the houses; they were reinforced by lieutenant cColonel Stephens, with about two hundred marksmen, who behaved with great bravery. 

Six of the enemy were left dead on the shore, and great numbers were supposed to be carried off in their boats. We did not lose a man; but had six or seven wounded. Some poor women were killed in endeavouring to move out of town. It was a shocking scene to see the poor women and children running about through the fire, and exposed to the guns from the ships, and some of them with children at their breasts. 

Let our countrymen view and contemplate this scene! 

Colonel Howe speaks highly of Colonel Woodford, Colonel Stephens, and all the officers and men. The cannonnade had lasted twenty-five hours when the express came away, and the flames were raging (it being impossible to extinguish them on account of the heavy fire from the ships) and had consumed two-thirds of the town. 

Our men, notwithstanding this, still kept their posts. The ships which fired were the Liverpool, Kingfisher, and Otter, men of war, lord Dunmore’s large ships, the William and Ellbeck, the shore ships, and all the tenders. 

It is affirmed that one hundred cannon played on the town almost incessantly for twenty-five hours, and the express says he heard the firing all the way on the road. Notwithstanding this heavy firing, and the town in flames around them, our men had the resolution to maintain their posts, and the coolness to aim as usual. They seem animated in their glorious cause, and appear to be shielded as the favourites of Heaven.

Upwards of thirty of Jack Dunmore’s hopeful gang, consisting of soldiers, sailors, and negroes, arrived here yesterday as prisoners under a strong guard. they are taken proper care of.

A large snow from Cork, laden with beef, butter, and potatoes, and a fine brig from the West Indies, laden with rum and sugar, were taken last Thursday by our good old friend Captain Barron. He was in a small vessel, with only six swivels and nine men. The prizes are sent up to Cumberland town to unload.

In CONVENTION, December 23, 1775. Resolved unanimously, that the thanks of this convention are justly due to the brave officers, gentlemen volunteers, and soliders, of North Caroline, as well as to our brethren of that province in general, for their prompt aid in defence of our common rights against the enemies to America, and of the British constitution.”