The Ordeal of Reconstruction

Challenges in the Post-War South

Despite Northern hopes and expectations for a short conflict, the Civil War lasted four years, leading to massive casualties, significant property destruction, and the abolition of slavery. The war devastated the South — socially, culturally, and economically — creating significant challenges as the nation tried to create a “New South.”

The Problems of Peace

Confederate leaders faced potential treason charges but were mainly released due to legal and political reasons, although Jefferson Davis was briefly imprisoned. The South was devastated — economically and socially. Cities were in ruin, infrastructure destroyed, and fields burned. With the loss of slaves, plantation owners faced labor shortages. Some white Southerners remained defiant, rejecting Union authority and harboring resentment. At the same time, some Northern politicians wanted to punish the South for the war and the death of President Abraham Lincoln. All of these issues challenged — and slowed — the process of reconciliation and Reconstruction.

The Fate of Confederate Leaders After the War

• Confederate leaders were captured and faced possible charges of treason.
• A popular Northern song during the war was “Hang Jeff Davis to a Sour Apple Tree.”
• Jefferson Davis was captured and imprisoned for two years.
• Davis and other Confederate leaders were released because it was unlikely a Virginia jury would convict them.
• In 1868, President Andrew Johnson pardoned Confederate leaders as a symbolic gesture.
• Congress removed all remaining civil penalties 30 years later.
• Davis’s citizenship was not restored until more than a century after his death.

The Devastation of the Post-War South

• The South was left devastated, economically and socially, after the war.
• The romanticized “Old South” was gone forever.
• Cities like Charleston and Richmond were left in ruins.

Economic Collapse in the South After the Civil War

• Economic activity was at a standstill.
• Banks and businesses closed, ruined by runaway inflation.
• Factories were no longer operating and had been dismantled.
• The transportation system had collapsed.
• Before the war, five railroad lines connected to Columbia, South Carolina, but after the war, the nearest connected track was 29 miles away.
• Attempts to repair the twisted rails damaged by Union soldiers were largely unsuccessful.

Agricultural Collapse in the Post-War South

• Agriculture, the South’s primary economic resource, was severely damaged.
• Cotton fields were overgrown with weeds.
• The slave-labor system had collapsed, leaving farms without workers.
• Seed was in short supply, and livestock had been stolen by Union forces.
• Some men had to pull plows themselves while women and children worked the handles.
• The Southern cotton crop did not return to 1860 levels until 1870, with much of the increase coming from the Southwest.

The Decline of the Southern Planter Aristocracy

• Some of the once-powerful planters were reduced to poverty by the war.
• They were left with burned and ruined mansions, lost investments, and nearly worthless land.
• Their wealth, primarily tied up in slaves valued at over $2 billion, disappeared.

Southern Defiance After the Civil War

• Many Southerners remained defiant and resented the Union.
• They referred to Washington’s government as “your government,” not “our government.
• Former Confederates believed secession was justified and continued to view the “Lost cause” as just.

AHC Note — The Southern Historical Society was founded in 1873. Jubal Early served as this organization’s president until he died in 1894. The group endorsed the Lost Cause, which glorified the Confederate war effort and disparaged Union military accomplishments. As part of the Lost Cause, the failures of Robert E. Lee on the field of battle were generally blamed on his officers, such as James Longstreet. Longstreet took great care to defend his position and his actions in the war, including his role in the Battle of Gettysburg, leading to a long feud with Early.

Freedmen Define Freedom

Although slaves were freed, no plan was in place to help support their integration into society — in the North or the South. These newly “Freedmen” faced challenges, including violence, as they tried to navigate their new place in society. Although some struggled to find footing, others successfully organized new communities, including the “Exodusters” who moved west to Kansas.

The Uncertain Reality of Emancipation

• Confusion about the meaning of “freedom” for blacks was widespread.
• Emancipation occurred inconsistently across different regions of the former Confederacy.
• Some blacks experienced being freed and re-enslaved multiple times as Union armies moved in and out.
• A North Carolina slave recalled celebrating freedom 12 times.
• Blacks fleeing from one Texas county to another were attacked by slaveowners, resulting in deaths and hanging bodies as warnings.
• Some planters resisted emancipation, arguing slavery was still legal until state legislatures or the Supreme Court declared otherwise.
• For many blacks, achieving freedom was a gradual process.

Reactions to Emancipation

• Reactions to emancipation varied.
• Some slaves, out of loyalty to their masters, resisted Union forces that were there to liberate them and remained on their plantations.
• Other slaves, filled with resentment, were violent when freed.
• Many newly freed slaves joined Union troops in looting their former master’s belongings.
• In Virginia, a group of former slaves whipped their master, giving him 20 lashes.

Emancipation Enforced by Union Occupation

• Under pressure from Union occupying forces, all slaveholders had to accept the permanent freedom of their slaves.
• Some planters gathered their former slaves together to announce their freedom.
• Some newly freed blacks initially reacted with suspicion, unsure of their new status.
• Many slaves celebrated their freedom by taking new names and insisting on being addressed as “Mr.” or “Mrs.”
• Freed slaves replaced their rough cotton clothes with more luxurious fabrics like silks and satins.
• White Southerners often viewed this behavior as defiant, but they had no choice but to acknowledge emancipation.
• One Southerner remarked, “Never before had I a word of impudence from any of our black folk, but they are not ours any longer.”

The Movement of Freed Blacks After Emancipation

• Tens of thousands of freed blacks traveled to test their freedom or search for lost family members.
• Emancipation strengthened the black family, with many former slaves formalizing “slave marriages.”
• Legal marriages allowed newly freed blacks to make their children legal heirs.
• Many blacks left plantations to work in towns and cities, where black communities provided support.
• Some entire communities moved together in search of new opportunities.
• From 1878 to 1880, around 25,000 blacks from Louisiana, Texas, and Mississippi migrated to Kansas in an “Exoduster Movement.”
• The migration was halted when steamboat captains refused to carry more black migrants across the Mississippi River.

AHC Note—The Exodusters were a group of African Americans who migrated to Kansas from the southern states in 1879. The mass migration was organized by Benjamin “Pap” Singleton, a former slave, in an effort to escape racial discrimination and segregation practices in the South and intimidation by white supremacist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan. The migration was also prompted by the Homestead Act (1862), which encouraged Westward Expansion.

The Role of the Church in Black Communities

• After emancipation, the church became the center of black community life.
• Blacks established churches with black ministers.
• The black Baptist Church grew from 150,000 members in 1850 to 500,000 by 1870.
• The African Methodist Episcopal Church expanded from 100,000 to 400,000 members in the decade following emancipation.
• These churches were essential to black community life and led to the formation of other supportive organizations.
• Benevolent, fraternal, and mutual aid societies arose to help blacks protect their newfound freedom.

Education for Freed Blacks

• Emancipation opened the door to education for many former slaves.
• Freedmen quickly formed societies for self-improvement to raise funds for land, schoolhouses, and teachers.
• A North Carolina education society member stated, “a schoolhouse would be the first proof of their independence.”
• The demand for education exceeded the number of qualified black teachers.
• Southern blacks accepted help from Northern white women sent by the American Missionary Association, who volunteered as teachers.
• They also sought assistance from the Federal Government.

The Freedmen’s Bureau

Freedmen faced significant issues as they lacked education and resources. Congress established the Freedmen’s Bureau in 1865 to assist with food, clothing, medical care, and education. Led by General Oliver O. Howard, the Bureau succeeded in educating around 200,000 people. However, the Bureau faced limited success in land distribution and encountered strong opposition from Southerners, who viewed the Freedmen as a threat.

The Freedmen’s Bureau

• Abolitionists had argued that slavery was a degrading institution.
• Freedmen were mostly unskilled, uneducated, and lacked property or money.
• Many had little experience or knowledge of how to survive as free individuals.
• In response, Congress established the Freedmen’s Bureau on March 3, 1865, to assist the newly freed population.
• It functioned as an early form of welfare agency, providing food, clothing, medical care, and education to both Freedmen and white refugees.
• General Oliver O. Howard, a supporter of black rights, led the Bureau.
• Howard later founded and served as President of Howard University in Washington, D.C.

Educational Successes of the Freedmen’s Bureau

• The Freedmen’s Bureau had its greatest achievements in education.
• Approximately 200,000 blacks were taught to read through the bureau’s efforts.
• Many former slaves were eager to learn, aiming to bridge the gap with whites and to read the Bible.
• In one North Carolina classroom, four generations of the same family, from a 6-year-old to a 75-year-old grandmother, attended lessons together.

Limited Success of the Freedmen’s Bureau

• The Bureau was authorized to distribute 40-acre tracts of land to former slaves.
• Local administrators often worked with planters to remove blacks from towns and push them into labor contracts with their former masters.
• The South viewed the Bureau as an intrusive Federal agency that threatened white racial dominance.
• President Andrew Johnson, who held white supremacist beliefs, repeatedly tried to dismantle the bureau.
• The Freedmen’s Bureau was eventually terminated in 1872.

ACH Note — The original Freedmen’s Bureau was “established in the War Department, to continue during the present war of rebellion, and for one year thereafter.” The legislation granted the agency “supervision and management of all abandoned lands and the control of all subjects relating to refugees and freedmen from rebel states.”

AHC Note — In March 1872, President Ulysses S. Grant temporarily reassigned General Howard as Special Indian Commissioner to the hostile Apaches of New Mexico and Arizona during the Apache Wars. In his absence, on June 10, 1872, Congress declared “That the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands shall be discontinued . . .”

Johnson: The Tailor President

Andrew Johnson came from a humble background and started his political career in Tennessee. He supported poor whites and opposed Secession. After Lincoln’s assassination, Johnson was sworn in as the 17th President of the United States. He struggled and was contentious, creating distrust with Congress.

The Humble Origins of Andrew Johnson

• Johnson faced various challenges following Lincoln’s assassination.
• He came from humble beginnings.
• Johnson was born to poor parents in North Carolina and became an orphan at a young age.
• He never attended school and was apprenticed to a tailor at age 10.
• Johnson was self-taught in reading, and his wife later taught him writing and basic math.

Johnson’s Political Rise in Tennessee

• Johnson became politically active in Tennessee after moving there at 17.
• He championed the interests of poor whites against the wealthy planter aristocracy despite eventually owning slaves.
• Johnson was known for his fiery speeches.
• Elected to Congress, Johnson gained favor in the North for refusing to secede with Tennessee, though this stance made him unpopular in the South.
• Johnson was appointed Governor after parts of Tennessee were reclaimed by the Union.

Johnson’s Vice-Presidential Inauguration

• Johnson became Vice President due to political necessity, as Lincoln’s National Union Party needed to gain support from War Democrats and pro-Southern factions.
• At the inauguration in March, Johnson appeared in a scandalous state.
• He had recently suffered from typhoid fever and, though not typically a heavy drinker, was encouraged by friends to take whiskey for strength.
• The whiskey had disastrous effects, tarnishing his appearance at the ceremony.

Johnson’s Character and Principles

• Johnson, often called “Old Andy,” was a capable and intelligent man but unrefined.
• He was known for his homespun honesty and strong sense of duty.
• Johnson was a staunch supporter of States’ Rights and a strict interpreter of the Constitution.
• He frequently presented visitors with a copy of the Constitution.
• Johnson was buried with a copy of the Constitution as his pillow.

A Misfit in the White House

• Johnson was ultimately ill-suited for the role.
• He was a Southerner who did not understand the North and a Tennessean distrusted by the South.
• As a Democrat, he was never fully accepted by Republicans.
• Johnson was not elected to the Presidency, making him out of place in a Republican White House.
• He was known for being hotheaded, contentious, and stubborn.
• Even the best Reconstruction policy might have struggled under his tactless leadership.

Presidential Reconstruction

Lincoln’s Reconstruction Plan required 10% of voters in a Southern State to take an Oath of Loyalty for readmittance to the Union. Radical Republicans in Congress opposed the “Ten Percent Plan” and passed the more stringent Wade-Davis Bill. Lincoln responded with a “pocket veto” by ignoring the bill. In the wake of Lincoln’s death, Congress hoped President Johnson would support the Wade-Davis Bill, but he took a different approach that included allowing former Confederates to return to political power.

Lincoln’s Ten Percent Plan for Reconstruction

• Lincoln believed the Southern states had never legally left the Union.
• His plan for restoring the Southern states was designed to be relatively simple.
• In 1863, he introduced the “Ten Percent” Reconstruction Plan.
• This plan allowed a state to be reintegrated into the Union once 10% of its voters from the 1860 presidential election took an Oath of Allegiance to the U.S.
• Voters also had to pledge to accept emancipation.
• After meeting these requirements, the state could form a new government.
• Lincoln would then formally recognize the state’s restored government.

Congressional Opposition and the Wade-Davis Bill

• Lincoln’s Ten Percent Plan faced opposition in Congress from Republicans.
• Republicans feared the return of the planter class to power and the potential re-enslavement of blacks.
• In 1864, Congress passed the Wade-Davis Bill, which required 50% of a state’s voters to take the Oath of Allegiance.
• The bill also included protections for emancipation as a condition for readmission to the Union.
• Lincoln “pocket-vetoed” the bill by refusing to sign it after Congress had adjourned.
• Outraged Republicans rejected delegates from Louisiana when it reorganized under Lincoln’s Ten Percent Plan in 1864.

Conflict Between Lincoln and Congress Over Reconstruction

• The Wade-Davis Bill controversy exposed differences between Lincoln and Congress.
• Lincoln believed the Southern States had never legally left the Union.
• Congress believed the Southern states had forfeited their rights and could only be readmitted as “conquered provinces.”
• Congress insisted that the terms for readmission should be set by them, not the President.

Emerging Republican Factions During Reconstruction

• The Wade-Davis Bill created divisions within the Republican Party.
• Two factions emerged: moderates and radicals.
• The moderates agreed with Lincoln that the Southern states should be restored to the Union but on Congressional terms.
• The radicals believed the South should face harsher consequences for secession.
• Radicals sought to use Federal authority to dismantle the South’s social structure, punish wealthy planters, and protect newly freed blacks.

Radical Republicans and Andrew Johnson

• Some Radical Republicans were secretly relieved by Lincoln’s assassination due to his leniency toward the South.
• They believed Andrew Johnson, known for his disdain for the Southern planter aristocracy, would support their harsher approach to Reconstruction.
• Radicals expected Johnson to enforce strict policies.

Johnson’s Reconstruction Plan

• Johnson quickly aligned with Lincoln’s view that the Southern States had never legally left the Union.
• He recognized several of the Ten Percent governments.
• On May 29, 1865, Johnson issued his own Reconstruction Proclamation.
• It disenfranchised leading Confederates, especially those with property worth over $20,000, though they could petition for pardons.
• Special state conventions were required to repeal Secession Ordinances, repudiate Confederate debts, and ratify the 13th Amendment.
• Johnson promised swift readmission to the Union for states that met these conditions.

Johnson’s Pardons and Republican Outrage

• Johnson enjoyed his power over Southern aristocrats, many of whom sought his favor.
• He granted pardons generously, allowing many former Confederates to regain political power.
• The Southern States organized new governments in the latter half of 1865, with planter elites returning to prominent positions.
• The structure of these new governments angered Republicans.

The Baleful Black Codes

Southern governments passed “Black Codes” to control Freedmen. They were very similar to pre-war Slave Laws. Started by Mississippi in 1865, Black Codes were intended to ensure there was a subservient labor force available to perform manual labor and menial tasks. The Codes limited civil rights, including voting and property ownership, while enforcing severe punishments for perceived laziness. Although they were repealed over time, the Black Codes and the rise of sharecropping caught many Freedmen in economic dependence and poverty. Black Codes caused outrage in the North, leading people to question the purpose of the war.

The Black Codes and Their Purpose

• The new Southern governments created Black Codes.
• The laws were designed to control the lives of free blacks, similar to old Slave Codes.
• Mississippi passed the first Black Code in November 1865, with other states following.
• The severity of the Codes varied by state, with Mississippi having the harshest and Georgia the most lenient.
• One goal of the Black Codes was to ensure a stable, subservient labor force for the recovering agricultural economy.
• Many whites sought to maintain tight control over black laborers, as they had during slavery.

ACH Note — Black Codes imposed strict regulations on African Americans’ behavior and activities. These codes often restricted their rights and freedoms, including their ability to vote, own property, and enter into contracts.

Penalties Under the Black Codes

• The Black Codes imposed harsh penalties on blacks who “jumped” their labor contracts, which typically bound them to the same employer for one year at very low wages.
• Violators could lose any earned wages or be forcibly returned to work by paid “Negro-catchers.”
• In Mississippi, Freedmen who were caught could be fined and then hired out to pay off their fines in a system resembling slavery.

Race Relations Under the Black Codes

• The Black Codes recreated pre-war racial hierarchies.
• Freedom and certain rights, such as the right to marry, were recognized for blacks.
• Blacks were forbidden from serving on juries, and in some states, they were not allowed to rent or lease land.
• Blacks could be punished for “idleness” by being sentenced to work on chain gangs.
• Blacks were denied the right to vote in all states.

Impact of the Black Codes and Sharecropping

• Black Codes undermined the concept of freedom.
• They imposed hardships on newly freed blacks, who were struggling with mistreatment and poverty.
• Although the worst aspects of the Black Codes were eventually repealed, economic independence remained elusive for freed blacks.
• With little to offer but their labor, many former slaves and landless whites became Sharecroppers.
• Sharecroppers fell into a system of virtual peonage, becoming bound to the land and their creditors.
• This system effectively replaced the master-slave dynamic with economic dependence on the land, trapping many in poverty for generations.
• Even Sharecropping, which gave laborers some independence, was resented by the former planter class, who saw it as too generous to the workers.

AHC Note — Sharecropping was an arrangement between wealthy landowners and independent farmers. A landowner essentially rented his land to farmers, who performed all the work of planting and harvesting the crops. A landowner usually provided supplies to plant the crops, along with food and shelter — for an additional fee — to his farmers. After the harvest, the crops the farmers raised were used to pay off their debt to the landowner. In some cases, the crops were not enough to pay off the debt, and the farmer had to continue working for the landowner. The farmers were usually poor whites and blacks who could not afford land. The system helped create an ongoing cycle of poverty that was difficult for the farmers to break out of.

Northern Reaction to the Black Codes

• Black Codes caused outrage in the North.
• Many Northerners questioned whether former slaves were being re-enslaved.
• People wondered if the sacrifices made by Union soldiers during the war were in vain.

Congressional Reconstruction

In December 1865, Southern states sent delegations to Congress that included former Confederate leaders. This outraged Radical Republicans, who were concerned Southern Democrats would form an alliance with Northern Democrats. This threatened to shift the balance of power to the South. Because of this, Congress refused to admit the Southern delegations.

Southern Delegations Return to Congress

• In December 1865, reconstituted Southern states sent delegations to Washington.
• Republicans were shocked and outraged to see former Confederate leaders among those seeking seats in Congress.
• Southern voters, looking for experienced representatives, had elected leaders who were associated with the Confederacy.
• The delegations included four former Confederate generals, five Colonels, and several members of the former Confederate government.
• Among the most controversial figures was Alexander Stephens, the Vice President of the Confederacy, who was still under indictment for treason.

Republican Resistance to Southern Delegations

• The presence of former Confederate leaders, labeled as “whitewashed rebels,” angered Republicans.
• Republicans did not want to reintegrate the South on these terms.
• Most Southern representatives were Democrats, which increased Republican opposition.
• While the South was absent in Congress from 1861 to 1865, Republicans passed key legislation benefiting the North, such as the Morrill Tariff, the Pacific Railroad Act, and the Homestead Act.
• Republicans hesitated to lose their political advantage and control of Congress.
• On December 4, 1865, the first day of the session, Congress refused to admit the newly elected Southern delegations.

Republican Concerns About Southern Political Power

• Republicans were concerned a restored South would be politically stronger than before the war.
• Prior to the war, enslaved blacks were counted as three-fifths of a person for congressional representation.
• With emancipation, former slaves were now fully counted.
• This meant the South would gain 12 seats in Congress and 12 Electoral Votes.

Republican Fears of Southern and Northern Democratic Alliance

• Republicans feared being pushed aside if the Democratic Party reunited
• An alliance could lead to control of Congress or even the White House.
• With this power, Democrats could perpetuate the Black Codes, nearly re-enslaving blacks.
• Republicans worried it could dismantle their economic policies, including lowering tariffs, changing the route of the Transcontinental Railroad, and repealing the Homestead Act.
• They also feared the potential repudiation of the national debt.
• President Johnson alarmed Republicans by declaring on December 6, 1865, that rebellious states had met his requirements and the Union was restored.

Johnson Clashes with Congress

In February 1866, President Johnson vetoed a bill to extend the Freedmen’s Bureau. Congress overrode the veto and responded by passing the Civil Rights Bill, granting citizenship to blacks and challenging the Black Codes. Johnson vetoed this bill — which was overridden by Congress. Radical Republicans then sought to enshrine civil rights in the Constitution and passed the Fourteenth Amendment in June 1866. It included citizenship for Freedmen and penalties for states denying voting rights.

Battle Over the Freedman’s Bureau

• A conflict between President Johnson and Congress became unavoidable.
• In February 1866, tensions flared when Johnson vetoed a bill aimed at extending the Freedmen’s Bureau.
• Despite Johnson’s veto, Congress later repassed the bill.

Civil Rights Act of 1866

• Republicans retaliated by passing the Civil Rights Bill in March 1866.
• The bill granted blacks American citizenship and aimed to dismantle the Black Codes.
• Johnson vetoed the bill on constitutional grounds, but Congress overrode his veto in April, marking the beginning of repeated overrides.
• Johnson earned the nicknames “Sir Veto” and “Andy Veto” as Congress began to dominate the government’s direction.
• One critic harshly referred to Johnson as “the dead dog of the White House.”

The Fourteenth Amendment

• Republicans sought to enshrine the Civil Rights Bill in the Constitution to prevent its future repeal by Southern-controlled Congress.
• The 14th Amendment was introduced and sent to the states in June 1866 with four key provisions:
  • It granted civil rights, including citizenship (but not voting rights), to Freedmen.
  • It reduced a state’s representation in Congress and the Electoral College if that state denied voting rights to blacks.
  • It barred former Confederates who had previously sworn to uphold the U.S. Constitution from holding federal or state office.
  • It guaranteed the Federal debt while repudiating all Confederate debts.

Southern Rejection of the Fourteenth Amendment

• Radical Republicans were disappointed that the 14th Amendment did not grant voting rights to Freedmen.
• However, all Republicans agreed that no Southern State should be readmitted to the Union without first ratifying the Amendment.
• President Johnson advised the Southern states to reject the Amendment — all but Tennessee rejected it.

AHC Note — In December 1865, Congress established the Joint Committee on Reconstruction to design a comprehensive approach to issues related to emancipation, abolition, civil rights, and reconstruction of the Union. This Committee proposed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the 14th Amendment. The 14th Amendment was ratified in 1868, even though New Jersey and Ohio rescinded their approval. Both states eventually approved the Amendment, but not until the 21st Century. On March 12, 2003, the Ohio General Assembly enacted a resolution to reverse Ohio’s rescission of the Amendment. Governor Robert Taft approved the resolution on September 17, making Ohio the last state to ratify the 14th Amendment.

Swinging ’Round the Circle with Johnson

As tensions between President Johnson and Congress grew, he sought public support for his lenient policies. Johnson went on a public relations campaign called “Swing ‘Round the Circle.” He dedicated monuments and delivered speeches; however, his speeches were filled with anger and accusations toward Radical Republicans. This helped turn public sentiment against him, contributing to Republicans winning a two-thirds majority in both the House and Senate.

Growing Conflict Between Congress and President Johnson

• The conflict between Congress and President Johnson intensified.
• The central issue was Johnson’s support for governments that enacted Black Codes.
• Congress tried to mitigate the effects of the Black Codes by extending the Freedmen’s Bureau and passing the Civil Rights Act.
• The key question now was whether Reconstruction would proceed with or without the 14th Amendment.
• Republicans insisted that Reconstruction could not move forward without the ratification of the 14th Amendment.

Johnson’s Campaign for the 1866 Congressional Elections

• The congressional elections of 1866 were pivotal to the path of Reconstruction.
• Johnson aimed to win a majority in Congress that would support his Reconstruction policies toward the South.
• To gain support, he accepted an invitation to dedicate a monument to Stephen A. Douglas in Chicago.
• He used the opportunity to speak in various cities along the way, promoting his views on Reconstruction.

Johnson’s Disastrous Campaign

• In the summer of 1866, Johnson embarked on his “Swing ‘Round the Circle” tour to gain support for his policies.
• His speeches were filled with angry attacks, accusing Radical Republicans in Congress of inciting anti-black riots and murder in the South.
• Hecklers interrupted his speeches, and Johnson responded angrily.
• Johnson’s behavior lowered the dignity of the presidency, and old rumors of his drunkenness resurfaced.
• Johnson’s tour ended up benefiting his opposition.
• Republicans secured more than a two-thirds majority in both the House and Senate.

Republican Principles and Programs

With a two-thirds majority in Congress, Radical Republicans had the power to override any Presidential Veto and control Reconstruction policies. However, divisions continued between radical and moderate Republicans. Radical leaders like Charles Sumner and Thaddeus Stevens called for extensive changes and federal intervention, while moderates favored less direct federal involvement. By 1867, both factions agreed to extend voting rights to Freedmen — even if it meant using military force.

Republicans Gain Veto-Proof Control of Reconstruction

• With a two-thirds majority in Congress, Republicans had the power to override any presidential veto.
• This gave them nearly unlimited control over Reconstruction.
• However, divisions remained within the party as moderates and radicals still disagreed on how to handle Reconstruction.

Charles Sumner and Thaddeus Stevens

• In the Senate, Radical Republicans were led by Charles Sumner.
• In the House, the most influential Radical Republican was Thaddeus Stevens.
• At 74, Stevens was a steadfast friend to blacks, having defended runaway slaves in court for free and requesting to be buried in a black cemetery.
• Stevens had a deep hatred for white Southerners and the Secession.
• Known for his sharp mind and wit, he played a key role as a member of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction.

Radical vs. Moderate Republicans

• Radical Republicans opposed the rapid restoration of Southern States and sought to use Federal power to enforce a drastic social and economic transformation in the South.
• They wanted to keep the South out of the Union as long as possible to ensure these changes.
• Moderate Republicans, valuing States’ Rights and self-government, resisted the radical agenda.
• Moderates preferred policies that prevented states from infringing on citizens’ rights without direct Federal intervention in individuals’ lives.
• The policies eventually adopted by Congress were a blend of both views, though moderates, as the majority, had greater influence.
• By 1867, both factions agreed on the necessity of enfranchising black voters, even if it required using military involvement to enforce it.

Reconstruction by the Sword

In response to violence against African Americans in the South, Congress passed the Reconstruction Act. It divided the South into five military districts. To enforce the provisions of the act, each district was assigned a Union General as a military governor and occupied by 20,000 troops. “Radical Reconstruction” required the Southern States to ratify the 14th Amendment and guarantee voting rights for Freedmen. By 1870, the Southern States were reorganized, but Democratic “Redeemers” took control after Federal troops withdrew in 1877.

The Reconstruction Act of 1867 and Military Rule in the South

• Amid race riots in Southern cities, Congress passed the Reconstruction Act on March 2, 1867.
• The act divided the South into five military districts, each overseen by a Union general.
• Around 20,000 Union soldiers were stationed in the South to enforce the act.
• The legislation temporarily disfranchised tens of thousands of former Confederates, limiting their political power.

Strict Conditions for Southern Readmission Under the Reconstruction Act

• Congress imposed stringent requirements for the readmission of Southern States into the Union.
• They had to ratify the 14th Amendment, ensuring citizenship rights for former slaves.
• They were required to include full voting rights for adult male freedmen in their state constitutions.
• White Southerners found the voting requirement difficult to accept.
• Despite these measures, the act did not provide land or education for Freedmen at Federal expense.
• The primary goal was to create a Southern electorate that would vote the states back into the Union, relieving the Federal Government of direct responsibility for protecting black rights.
• This ultimately proved insufficient for securing long-term justice for blacks.

The Radical Republicans’ Push for Black Suffrage

• Radical Republicans feared that once the Southern States were readmitted, they would change their constitutions to revoke black suffrage.
• To prevent this, they sought to guarantee black voting rights by amending the U.S. Constitution.
• This culminated in the passage of the 15th Amendment in 1869.
• The 15th Amendment was ratified by the required number of states in 1870, ensuring that the right to vote could not be denied based on race.

Legal Controversies of Military Reconstruction

• Military Reconstruction challenged the authority of the President as commander-in-chief by establishing military rule in the South.
• The legality of this was questionable, especially in light of the Supreme Court’s ruling in Ex parte Milligan (1866), which stated that military tribunals could not try civilians when civil courts were open, even during wartime.
• The use of military rule in peacetime appeared to violate the Constitution’s principles.
• However, the extraordinary post-war circumstances led the Supreme Court to avoid confronting the Republican Congress over this issue at the time.

Reorganization and Return of Democratic Control in the South

• The Southern States started drafting new constitutions.
• By 1870, all of them had reorganized their governments and regained full rights in the Union.
• Federal troops remained until the new governments appeared stable.
• Once Federal troops withdrew from a state, control quickly shifted to white “Redeemers” or “Home Rule” regimes dominated by Democrats.
• In 1877, the last troops were withdrawn, and the South was solidified as a Democratic region.

AHC Note — Redeemers were conservative Democrats who emerged in the South following the Civil War and sought to restore white supremacy and the traditional social and economic order. The Redeemers, who were also known as the Bourbons, opposed Reconstruction and the advances made by African Americans during this period, and they used a variety of tactics, including violence and intimidation, to undermine the progress of the Reconstruction Era.

No Women Voters

Women’s rights advocates were disappointed by the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, which focused on racial equality for men. Despite their role in the Abolitionist Movement and support for Emancipation, leaders like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony were upset when the 14th Amendment included the word “male” in its citizenship clause and the 15th Amendment failed to address gender. Women would not gain the right to vote until the 19th Amendment was ratified in 1920.

Women’s Rights Advocates and the Reconstruction Amendments

• The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments pleased Abolitionists but disappointed Women’s Rights advocates.
• Women played key roles in the Abolition Movement.
• Many women viewed the fight for Abolition and Women’s Rights as interconnected causes.
• During the war, feminist leaders like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony set aside their demands to support Abolition.
• For example, the Woman’s Loyal League collected nearly 400,000 signatures for a petition urging Congress to pass an Amendment to end slavery.

Feminist Disappointment with the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments

• After the war and the passage of the 13th Amendment, feminist leaders believed their time for suffrage had arrived.
• They were shocked when the 14th Amendment, which granted equal citizenship, explicitly included the word male regarding voting rights, marking the first time gender was specified in the Constitution.
• Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony actively opposed the 14th Amendment, despite an argument from Frederick Douglass that it was “the Negro’s hour.”
• When the 15th Amendment sought to prohibit voter discrimination based on “race, color, or previous condition of servitude,” Stanton and Anthony campaigned to add sex to the list but were unsuccessful.
• Women would have to wait 50 more years before the right to vote was granted with the 19th Amendment.

The Realities of Radical Reconstruction in the South

The 14th Amendment granted citizenship to Freedmen, but they were not granted voting rights until the 15th Amendment was ratified. Despite this, it was an uphill battle for African American men and women in the South. While men became involved in politics through the Union League, they faced obstacles that kept them from climbing up the political ladder or forming large coalitions. Women supported them by organizing events and attending conventions, but even with this support, political advancement was limited.

Gradual vs. Immediate Black Suffrage in Reconstruction

• Blacks gained a limited form of freedom, with Congress gradually securing the right to vote for them.
• Lincoln and Johnson had proposed gradual enfranchisement for blacks based on qualifications like education, property ownership, or military service.
• At first, moderate and Radical Republicans hesitated to grant Freedmen the right to vote.
• The 14th Amendment granted blacks citizenship but did not guarantee voting rights.
• By 1867, Congress embraced enfranchising former slaves immediately, even though many white Southerners were denied the vote.
• In contrast, most Northern states withheld voting rights from their small black populations until the 15th Amendment was ratified in 1870.
• White Southerners viewed the Republicans as hypocritical for pushing black suffrage in the South, while many Northern states did not allow it.

Political Organization Among Freedmen: The Union League

• After gaining the right to vote, Southern black men started organizing politically.
• Their main platform for political engagement was the Union League, originally a pro-Union organization from the North.
• With assistance from Northern blacks, Freedmen transformed the League into a network of political clubs.
• The League educated its members on civic responsibilities and campaigned for Republican candidates.
• Its mission expanded to include building black churches and schools, addressing black grievances with employers and government, and forming militias to protect black communities from white retaliation.

African-American Women’s Political Roles During Reconstruction

• Although African American women were not granted the right to vote, they played active roles in political life during Reconstruction.
• They regularly attended parades and rallies held in their communities.
• They helped organize mass meetings, often held in newly built black churches.
• Women also participated in the political process by attending Constitutional Conventions in 1867, monitoring the proceedings, and informally voting outside the convention halls.

Black Political Participation During Reconstruction

• Black men, elected as delegates to state Constitutional Conventions, held significant political authority during Reconstruction.
• These delegates worked alongside whites to create new State Constitutions, with a key provision for universal male suffrage.
• While no black Governors or state senate majorities emerged, black political involvement increased dramatically.
• Between 1868 and 1876, 14 black Congressmen and two black Senators, Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce of Mississippi, served in Washington, D.C.
• Blacks also held positions in state governments as Lieutenant Governors and representatives and in local governments as Mayors, Magistrates, Sheriffs, and Justices of the Peace.

Hostility Toward Scalawags and Carpetbaggers

• The presence of former slaves in political office enraged some former slaveowners.
• These people resented white allies of Freedmen, labeling them “Scalawags” and “Carpetbaggers.”
• Scalawags were Southerners, often former Unionists and Whigs, whom former Confederates accused — sometimes with exaggeration — of exploiting Southern State treasuries through their political influence.
• Carpetbaggers were perceived as opportunistic Northerners who came South with few belongings, supposedly seeking power and profit after the war.
• In reality, most carpetbaggers were former Union soldiers, businessmen, and professionals who sought to modernize the “New South.”

AHC Note — The New South was a concept promoted by elite white Southerners that suggested the economy of the South could be remade in the wake of the Civil War and Reconstruction. The movement expanded the economy but also led to widespread poverty and discrimination against lower classes, especially African Americans, who were targeted by Black Codes and Jim Crow Laws.

AHC Note — Scalawags and Carpetbaggers were terms used to describe certain groups of people who were active in the politics of the Reconstruction South. Scalawags were Southern whites who supported Reconstruction and the Republican Party, while Carpetbaggers were Northerners who moved to the South during Reconstruction and were often viewed with suspicion by Southerners. Both groups were unpopular in the South and were often accused of corruption and abuse of power. One of the more well-known Scalawags was James Longstreet.

Achievements of the Radical Regimes During Reconstruction

• Radical legislatures passed legislation and introduced essential reforms in the South.
• They took the first steps toward creating adequate public schools, a milestone in Southern history.
• Tax systems were streamlined to improve efficiency.
• Public works projects were initiated to improve infrastructure.
• Women’s property rights were guaranteed for the first time.
• Many of these reforms were retained even after the return of the Redeemer governments later on.

Corruption in Radical Reconstruction Governments

• Despite reforms, corruption was widespread in many Southern governments, particularly in South Carolina and Louisiana.
• Unscrupulous promoters used politically inexperienced blacks as pawns in their schemes.
• Some “black-and-white” legislatures misused funds, purchasing luxury items like hams, perfumes, champagne, and even a coffin as “legislative supplies.”
• One governor “saved” $100,000 in a year by only accepting a salary of $8,000.
• Corruption was not unique to the South; similar scandals, like those led by Boss Tweed, were rampant in the North.

The Ku Klux Klan

Some Southern whites, angered by the effects of Radical Reconstruction, turned to violence. No other group exemplified this more than the Ku Klux Klan. They sought to undermine the influence of Carpetbaggers, Scalawags, and African American politicians through violence and intimidation. Congress responded with legislation that curbed Klan activities, but it did not end Southern resistance to the advancement of African Americans.

Ku Klux Klan and White Resistance to Reconstruction

• Some Southern whites resorted to violence.
• They resented not only the alleged corruption but also the success and competence of black legislators.
• Secret organizations emerged, the most infamous being the Ku Klux Klan, also known as the “Invisible Empire of the South,” founded in Tennessee in 1866.
• Klan members, dressed in white sheets and riding at night, intimidated African Americans.

The Violent Impact of the Ku Klux Klan’s Intimidation

• The Klan’s mix of terror and intimidation proved somewhat effective in discouraging black and Carpetbagger participation in politics.
• Many blacks and white allies, fearing for their lives, avoided the voting polls.
• Those who resisted Klan threats were subjected to violence.
• In one Louisiana parish in 1868, whites killed or wounded 200 people over two days; a pile of 25 bodies was discovered half-buried in the woods.
• These violent acts were aimed at suppressing black political and social advancement.

The Enforcement Acts

• In response to the Klan’s violence and intimidation, Congress passed the Enforcement Acts in 1870 and 1871.
• These laws allowed Federal troops to intervene and suppress Klan activities.
• However, by the time Federal action was taken, the Klan had already succeeded in intimidating many blacks and their allies.
• Even after being outlawed, many of the groups continued their tactics under different names, such as “dancing clubs,” “missionary societies,” and “rifle clubs.”

AHC Note — The Enforcement Acts are also known as the Ku Klux Klan Acts.

Undermining Black Political Empowerment and Disenfranchisement

• White resistance in the South weakened efforts to empower blacks politically.
• For decades, Southern whites openly defied the 14th and 15th Amendments.
• Starting around 1890, widespread black disenfranchisement was achieved through intimidation, fraud, and manipulation.
• Tactics included literacy tests, which were unfairly administered to favor illiterate whites while disadvantaging blacks.
• In the view of many white Southerners, these deceitful methods were justified to maintain white supremacy.

Johnson Walks the Impeachment Plank

Radical Republicans, frustrated with President Johnson, sought to remove him from office after he relieved Edwin Stanton of his duties as Secretary of War. Republicans intended to replace him with Benjamin Wade, President Pro Tempore of the Senate, and impeached him.

Radical Republicans Target President Johnson for Removal

• Radical Republicans were increasingly frustrated with President Johnson, whom they called the “drunken tailor.”
• They went so far as to spread false accusations, claiming Johnson kept a harem of “dissolute women” in the White House.
• Unsatisfied with curbing his power, Radical Republicans sought to remove Johnson from office through constitutional means.
• If successful, Johnson would be replaced by the president pro tempore of the Senate, Benjamin Wade of Ohio, a radical and unscrupulous figure.

AHC Note — Future Republican President James Garfield of Ohio characterized Wade as “a man of violent passions, extreme opinions and narrow views who was surrounded by the worst and most violent elements in the Republican Party.”

The Tenure of Office Act and Congress’s Move Against Johnson

• In 1867, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, overriding President Johnson’s veto.
• The law required the President to obtain Senate approval before removing any appointees who had previously been confirmed by the Senate.
• It was designed to protect Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, a holdover from Lincoln’s cabinet.
• Although Stanton appeared loyal to Johnson, he was secretly acting as a spy for Radical Republicans.

Johnson’s Dismissal of Stanton and Impeachment Proceedings

• Johnson gave Radical Republicans the opportunity to start impeachment proceedings when he dismissed Stanton in early 1868.
• The House of Representatives quickly voted 126 to 47 to impeach Johnson for “high crimes and misdemeanors.”
• The charges centered on Johnson’s violations of the Tenure of Office Act.
• Two additional articles of impeachment addressed Johnson’s verbal attacks on Congress, accusing him of bringing “disgrace, ridicule, hatred, contempt, and reproach” upon the legislative body.

A Not-Guilty Verdict for Johnson

Ultimately, the Senate acquitted Johnson by one vote, as concerns about setting a precedent of using political differences to remove the President came to the forefront. Although Radical Republicans were outraged, the nation peacefully accepted the outcome, which maintained the stability of the Presidency.

Johnson’s Impeachment Trial in the Senate

• The Radical Republicans in the Senate eagerly took up the task of trying President Johnson on impeachment charges, with the House leading the prosecution.
• The trial captured intense public attention, and one thousand tickets were printed for what became the biggest spectacle of 1868.
• Johnson maintained his dignity, sobriety, and silence throughout the proceedings.
• His defense attorneys argued that Johnson believed the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional and had dismissed Stanton to create a test case for the Supreme Court.
• House prosecutors, including Benjamin F. Butler and Thaddeus Stevens, struggled to build a strong case for impeachment.

Johnson Acquitted in the Senate by One Vote

• On May 16, 1868, the Senate prepared for its first vote on Johnson’s impeachment, with intense public anticipation and high tension in the galleries.
• Radical Republicans fell short of the two-thirds majority needed to remove Johnson — by one vote.
• Seven Republican senators, prioritizing country over party, voted “not guilty,” allowing Johnson to remain in office.

Factors Leading to Johnson’s Acquittal

• Concerns about setting a destabilizing precedent influenced the decision to acquit Johnson.
• Many opposed abusing the Constitutional System of Checks and Balances to remove a President for political reasons.
• Political calculations played a significant role, as radical Republican Benjamin Wade, disliked for his high-tariff, soft-money, and pro-labor views, would have succeeded Johnson.
• Wade’s views alienated the business community and moderate Republicans.
• Johnson signaled through his attorney that he would stop obstructing Republican policies if allowed to remain in office, which also swayed the outcome.

Radical Republicans React to Johnson’s Acquittal

• Radical Republicans were outraged by their failure to remove Johnson, with Thaddeus Stevens exclaiming, “The Country is going to the Devil!”.
• Despite the emotions, the nation accepted the verdict.
• In a less stable republic, the outcome might have led to armed uprisings.
• The decision avoided setting a dangerous precedent that could have weakened the Executive Branch.
• Johnson was guilty of poor judgment and temper but not of “high crimes and misdemeanors.”
• His real offense, in the eyes of Radical Republicans, was his opposition to their Reconstruction agenda.

The Purchase of Alaska

Despite its challenges, the Johnson Administration did secure the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million. Secretary of State William H. Seward negotiated the deal, despite which was criticized as “Seward’s Folly.” Despite skepticism, the purchase proved valuable due to Alaska’s natural resources.

Russia Seeks to Sell Alaska

• Despite his diminished role, Johnson achieved some long-term success in foreign relations, particularly with the Alaska Purchase.
• By 1867, Russia was eager to sell Alaska due to overextension in North America and fears of losing it to Britain in the event of war.
• Alaska had become an economic burden after being heavily exploited for fur.
• The Russians preferred to sell Alaska to the United States to strengthen the U.S. as a counterbalance to their longtime rival, Britain.

The Purchase of Alaska and Public Reaction

• In 1867, Seward negotiated a treaty with Russia to purchase Alaska for $7.2 million.
• Despite his enthusiasm, many Americans mocked the acquisition, calling it “Seward’s Folly.”
• The public, focused on Reconstruction and domestic issues, was largely uninterested in expansion and considered the purchase unnecessary and wasteful.

Why Congress Approved the Purchase of Alaska

• Congress and the American public approved the Alaska purchase in part due to Russia’s friendly stance toward the Union during the Civil War.
• Americans did not want to offend Russia by rejecting the offer.
• There were also rumors that Alaska was rich in furs, fish, and gold, with potential for future profits.
• Alaska later proved valuable with its natural resources, including oil and gas.

The Heritage of Reconstruction

Southern resentment toward Reconstruction was intense, as many people viewed the harsh treatment imposed by Northern politicians as punishment. Shifting policies only made things worse, with Reconstruction controlled by the President and then Congress. Ultimately, the efforts of Radical Republicans to protect Freedmen failed to create the social, political, and economic progress that was needed.

Southern Resentment and the Complexity of Reconstruction

• Many white Southerners viewed Reconstruction as more painful than the Civil War.
• They resented the disruption of their social and racial hierarchy, the political empowerment of blacks, and Federal intervention in their affairs.
• Despite the bitterness of the war, Reconstruction could have been far harsher, given the intense issues and animosities at play.
• At the end of the war, neither Lincoln, Johnson, nor most Republicans had a clear plan for how to handle Reconstruction.
• Federal policy toward the South evolved as policymakers navigated Southern reactions to defeat and emancipation rather than strictly imposing a predetermined program.

Republican Motives and the Backfire of Reconstruction

• Republicans were driven by both idealism and political expediency, seeking to protect freed slaves and strengthen the Republican Party.
• Their efforts, however, ultimately backfired.
• While Reconstruction provided some temporary gains for blacks, they were short-lived.
• The political fallout nearly destroyed the Republican Party in the South, where it remained weak for almost 100 years.

Challenges and Limits of Reconstruction

• Moderate Republicans underestimated the effort required to ensure full independence for Freedmen and the extent of Southern resistance to racial equality.
• Radical measures proposed by Thaddeus Stevens, including extensive economic reforms and stronger protections for political rights, were not adopted.
• Obstacles included deep-seated racism, resistance to altering property rights, and a strong commitment to local self-government.
• Growing indifference in the North toward black issues further impeded progress.
• As a result, despite the Republicans’ good intentions, the South was often more resurrected than reconstructed.

Additional Resources for the Ordeal of Reconstruction

The notes on this page are based on the 16th edition of The American Pageant. We have expanded on the source material with additional details, corrections, and links to Encyclopedia Entries that explain topics in more detail. For more information, including terms and definitions, see the following:

• Advanced Placement United States History (APUSH) Units
• The South and the Slavery Controversy (1793–1860)
• Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy (1841–1848)
• Renewing the Sectional Struggle (1848–1854)
• Drifting Toward Disunion (1854–1861)
• Girding for War: The North and the South (1861–1865)
• The Furnace of Civil War (1861–1865)
• The Ordeal of Reconstruction (1865–1877)