The Planting of English America

Transformation of the New World and Early Colonization Efforts

The 17th Century was a time of significant change in the New World — for both North and South America. The arrival of Europeans created significant ecological shifts, as European crops and animals were introduced, drastically changing the landscape and the way of life. However, this period also had devastating effects on the Native American Indians, who suffered due to diseases brought by Europeans and armed conflicts. 

Additionally, hundreds of thousands of Africans were taken as prisoners, sold as slaves, and forced to work on Sugar Plantations in the Caribbean and Brazil. Eventually, plantation owners migrated to the American mainland, taking their slaves — and their Slave Codes — with them.

During this century, Spain held control over a vast portion of the New World, spanning from Florida and New Mexico down through South America. Following the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 allowed England to expand and pursue imperial goals.

The early 17th Century was marked by the establishment of key European settlements in North America, which were:

1. Jamestown — Founded by the English in 1607.
2. Quebec — Founded by the French in 1608.
3. Santa Fe — Founded by the Spanish in 1610, joining St. Augustine in Florida, which was established in 1565.

England’s Imperial Stirrings

King Henry VIII started the English Protestant Reformation in the 1530s, leading to long-term conflicts between Catholics and Protestants. When his daughter, Queen Elizabeth I, a Protestant, became Queen in 1558, she strengthened Protestantism, increasing tensions with Catholic Spain. England started exploring the New World later than Spain and focused more on exploration than colonization. In Ireland, which had been under English rule since the 12th Century, Catholic resistance to Protestant English rule led to suppression and confiscation of land. The English attitude of looking down on the “savage” people of Ireland continued in their New World interactions with Native American Indians.

King Henry VIII and the Protestant Reformation

• England was Initially allied with Spain but showed little interest in establishing overseas colonies.
• Religious conflict started in England after King Henry VIII broke away from the Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s.
• The English Protestant Reformation started, leading to decades of conflict between Catholics and Protestants in England and Europe.
• Queen Elizabeth I, a Protestant, ascended to the throne in 1558, solidifying Protestantism in England and intensifying the rivalry with Catholic Spain.
• England eventually followed Spain’s path and started to explore the New World, but its efforts were more focused on exploration rather than colonization.

English and Irish Conflict

• Ireland, under nominal English rule since the 12th Century, became a focal point in the rivalry between Protestants and Catholics.
• Irish Catholics sought support from Catholic Spain against Protestant English rule, but Spanish aid to Ireland was limited. 
• English troops crushed Irish uprisings in the 1570s and 1580s.
• Atrocities were inflicted upon the Irish people by English troops.
• The English Crown confiscated the land of Irish Catholics and gave it to Protestant landlords from Scotland and England who were expected to spread their religion.
• These actions planted the seeds of long-lasting religious, political, and social tensions in Ireland.
• English soldiers developed contempt for the “savage” natives — an attitude they carried to the New World.

Elizabeth Energizes England

Queen Elizabeth I revitalized England, notably after Francis Drake’s piracy against Spanish ships and subsequent knighthood, which angered Spain. English colonization attempts initially failed, including Sir Walter Raleigh’s “Lost Colony” at Roanoke Island. Spain’s quest for revenge led to their defeat by the English in the Spanish Armada in 1588. This victory enabled England to dominate Atlantic exploration and colonization, ushering in a period of strong governance, national unity, and a literary golden age led by William Shakespeare. British naval dominance started, lasting until around 1900.

Queen Elizabeth’s Sea Dogs

• Queen Elizabeth encouraged English pirates, known as the “Sea Dogs,” to raid Spanish ships and settlements.
• Their goals included promoting Protestantism and acquiring wealth for England.
• Francis Drake was the most famous Sea Dog and gained a reputation for plundering Spanish treasure ships.
• Drake’s 1580 voyage returned with substantial Spanish treasure, yielding profits of about 4,600%.
• Queen Elizabeth secretly invested in Drake’s ventures and knighted him despite Spanish protests.

Early English Colonization Attempts

• The first English colonization attempt was on the coast of Newfoundland.
• It failed when Sir Humphrey Gilbert died at sea in 1583.
• Gilbert’s half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, followed in his footsteps and organized more expeditions.
• Raleigh’s expedition landed in 1585 on Roanoke Island, off the coast of Virginia.
• The Roanoke Colony struggled and eventually vanished.

Spanish Colonization Funds the Armada

• English colonization failures contrasted with Spanish imperial successes.
• Spain’s colonial empire was enriching the nation substantially.
• King Philip II of Spain used the wealth to build an “Invincible Armada” to invade and conquer England.

Defeat of the Spanish Armada

• The Spanish Armada, consisting of 130 ships, entered the English Channel in 1588.
• English ships, including those of the Sea Dogs, were more maneuverable and better manned and inflicted heavy damage on the Spanish fleet.
• A storm called the “Protestant Wind,” scattered the Spanish fleet, contributing to its defeat.

Long-Term Effects of the Defeat on Spain

• The defeat started the decline of Spanish imperial ambitions, even though New Spain lasted for another 300 years.
• The Spanish Netherlands (Holland) gained independence within a few decades.
• Much of the Spanish Caribbean slipped from Spain’s control.
• Overreliance on silver and a sense of invincibility contributed to Spain’s decline.

Impact of the Spanish Armada Defeat on England

• The victory over the Spanish Armada secured England’s naval dominance in the North Atlantic.
• England was in a position to become a dominant global maritime power.
• A wave of nationalism swept through England.
• Tension between Protestants and Catholics eased.
• England was unified by Queen Elizabeth I.

Golden Age of English Spirit and Colonial Ambitions

• A golden age of literature emerged, with Shakespeare at its forefront.
• There was increased interest in adventure, exploration, and the unknown.
• There was a spirit of self-confidence, patriotism, and faith in England’s future.
• By 1604, after signing a peace treaty with Spain, England was ready to establish its colonial empire in the New World.

England on the Eve of the Empire

In the 1500s, Britain’s population was rapidly increasing. The new policy of enclosure, which fenced in land for farming, reduced land availability for the poor. Economic difficulties hit the Woolen Districts, and many people were unemployed. The tradition of primogeniture meant that only the firstborn son inherited all the father’s land, prompting younger sons to seek fortunes elsewhere, including America. By the 1600s, the joint-stock company was perfected, allowing investors to pool their money for potential returns, paving the way for modern corporations.

Population Increase

• England experienced significant social and economic changes at the start of the 17th Century.
• The population increased from 3 million in 1550 to about 4 million in 1600.

Closure of Lands to the Lower Classes

• Landlords started enclosing their lands for sheep grazing, displacing many small farmers.
• Displaced farmers faced precarious tenancy or were forced off the land.
• The Woolen Districts in the east and west of England became the strongholds for religious dissenters — Browninsts, Separatists, and Puritans.
• Many early American immigrants came from these areas.

Population Mobility and Social Concerns

• Economic depression in the Woolen Trade in the late 1500s led to a rise in unemployment.
• Many displaced workers became drifted, often becoming beggars and paupers in cities.
• Larger cities like Bristol and London saw an influx of unemployed people.
• The mobile population caused alarm, leading to concerns about a “surplus population.”
• It should be noted that present-day London has twice as many people as the entire nation of England did in 1600.

Laws of Primogeniture

• Laws of Primogeniture allowed only eldest sons to inherit landed estates.
• Ambitious younger sons, like Humphrey Gilbert, Walter Raleigh, and Francis Drake, sought fortunes elsewhere.
• Unfortunately, the early ventures of these men were often plagued by bad luck.

Rise of Joint Stock Companies

• The Joint Stock Company, a precursor to modern corporations, was perfected by the early 1600s.
• Investors, known as “Adventurers,” pooled their money to fund expeditions.

Conditions Favoring English Colonization

• Peace with Spain created an opportunity for English colonization.
• The population growth provided a labor force.
• Unemployment, the desire for adventure, markets, and religious freedom also motivated English colonization efforts.
• Joint Stock Companies provided the financial backing for colonization.
• England was finally ready for a significant effort to establish a presence in North America.

England Plants the Jamestown Seedling

In 1606, the Virginia Company received a charter from King James I to establish a settlement in the New World. The charter guaranteed settlers the same rights as the King’s Subjects living in England. In 1607, about 100 settlers founded Jamestown. They faced significant challenges, but Captain John Smith’s leadership brought order. Despite hardships, including extreme food shortages, a relief party arrived in 1610. By 1625, only 1,200 of the initial 8,000 settlers had survived.

Establishment of the Virginia Company

• In 1606, the Virginia Company of London received a charter from King James I.
• The main goals were to find gold and a passage to the Indies.
• Most of the investors were thinking about short-term profits.

Challenges for the Colonists

• Colonists faced pressure to quickly find wealth or risk abandonment.
• Investors did not focus on long-term colonization.
• Few, if any, realized they were planting the seeds of a future nation.

AHC Note — The Virginia Company had two branches. The other was the Virginia Company of Plymouth — or Plymouth Company. The investors tried to establish a settlement in Maine, known as Popham Colony, but it failed.

Significance of the Virginia Company Charter

• The First Virginia Charter guaranteed settlers the same rights as Englishmen at home.
• This guarantee extended to later English Colonies.
• These rights reinforced the colonists’ connection to English institutions.
• Ironically, these rights fueled resentment against England and a desire for independence 150 years later.

Founding of Jamestown

• The Virginia Company’s three ships set sail in late 1606 and landed near Chesapeake Bay.
• After an initial attack by Indians, they moved up the bay and settled on the banks of the James River.
• The site was defensible but unhealthy and mosquito-infested.
• On May 24, 1607, about 100 settlers, all men, founded Jamestown.

Early Hardships in Jamestown

• The early years of Jamestown were difficult.
• 40 colonists died during the initial voyage in 1606–1607.
• An expedition in 1609 lost leaders and supplies in a shipwreck off Bermuda.
• Settlers died from disease, malnutrition, and starvation — despite abundant wildlife.
• Many settlers, unaccustomed to manual labor, wasted time searching for gold instead of gathering provisions or working to grow food.
• Their lack of survival skills exacerbated the colony’s struggles.

The Leadership of Captain John Smith

• Captain John Smith took over in 1608, enforcing the rule, “He who shall not work shall not eat.”
• Smith was kidnapped in December 1607 and subjected to a mock execution by Powhatan, the leader of the Powhatan Confederacy.
• According to legend, Powhatan’s daughter, Pocahontas, intervened and saved Smith’s life.
• Pocahontas became an intermediary between the Indians and the English, helping to maintain peace and provide food.

The Starving Time

• Despite leadership efforts, many colonists died, resorting to desperate measures.
• Some colonists ate animals and even resorted to cannibalism.
• Of the 400 settlers who arrived by 1609, only 60 survived the “Starving Time” during the Winter of 1609–1610.

Lord De La Warr Arrives

• In the spring of 1610, colonists tried to abandon Jamestown.
• They were met by a relief party led by the new Governor of Virginia, Thomas West, Lord De La Warr, at the James River.
• Lord De La Warr ordered the settlers back to Jamestown and imposed a harsh military structure on the settlement.
• He also initiated aggressive military actions against the Indians.

Continued Struggles and Survival

• Disease continued to cause significant fatalities among the colonists.
• By 1625, only 1,200 survivors remained out of the nearly 8,000 settlers who had attempted to establish the colony.

Cultural Clash in the Chesapeake

Initially, Powhatan viewed the colonists as potential allies and tried to maintain friendly relations. However, after colonists started raiding Indian food supplies, tensions rose, leading to conflict. The First Anglo-Powhatan War ended in 1614 with a peace agreement marked by the marriage of Pocahontas to John Rolfe, who introduced sweet tobacco to Virginia. In 1622, renewed Indian attacks killed 347 settlers, including Rolfe. The Third Anglo-Powhatan War (1644–1646) resulted in the defeat and banishment of the Chesapeake Indians from their lands. Once the Virginians were able to grow their food, they deemed the Indians unnecessary and worked to expel them.

Powhatan’s Confederacy and Initial Interactions

• In 1607, Powhatan dominated the native tribes in the James River area.
• He led a confederacy of a few dozen small tribes, known as Powhatan’s Confederacy.
• The English inaccurately called all local Indians “Powhatans” instead of their tribal names.
• Powhatan initially saw the English as potential allies against his Indian rivals and tried to be friendly toward them.
• The Indians would provide the English with food, but relations were often tense due to food shortages.
• The colonists turned to raiding Indian villages and seizing food supplies.

Escalation of Conflict

• Tensions increased with the arrival of Lord De La Warr in 1610.
• De La Warr carried orders from the Virginia Company to wage war against the Indians.
• He introduced “Irish Tactics,” raiding villages, burning houses, confiscating provisions, and torching cornfields.

First Anglo-Powhatan War and Peace Settlement

• The First Anglo-Powhatan War ended in 1614 with a peace settlement.
• The peace was sealed by the marriage of Pocahontas to colonist John Rolfe, marking the first known interracial union in Virginia.

Indian Retaliation and Continued Conflict

• A fragile peace between the settlers and Indians lasted for eight years.
• In 1622, Indians, pressured by settlers and ravaged by diseases, attacked, killing 347 settlers, including John Rolfe.
• The Virginia Company responded with orders for a “perpetual war” to decimate the Indian population.

Third Anglo-Powhatan War

• The Third Anglo-Powhatan War occurred in 1644, with Indians attempting to remove the Virginians.
• Indians were defeated again, and the 1646 peace treaty ended hopes of assimilation or peaceful coexistence.
• The treaty banished Chesapeake Indians from their lands and created separate areas for Indians and settlers, starting the reservation system.

Decline of the Powhatan Population

• By 1669, an official census recorded only about 2,000 Indians remaining in Virginia, about 10% of the population in 1607.
• By 1685, the English considered the Powhatan People extinct.

Disease, Disorganization, and Disposability

• The Powhatans fell victim to three critical factors — disease, disorganization, and disposability — or the “Three D’s.”
• The Powhatans were highly susceptible to European diseases, leading to epidemics from Smallpox and Measles devastating their population.
• Despite Powhatan’s Confederacy, the Indians lacked the unity to effectively resist the well-organized and disciplined settlers.

Lack of Economic Utility

• Unlike the Indians encountered by the Spaniards, the Powhatans provided very little benefit to the Virginia colonists, other than food.
• They did not serve as a reliable workforce and had no valuable commodities to trade, such as gold.
• After Virginians started growing crops, the Powhatans had little to offer.

Disposability of the Powhatans

• The lack of economic utility made it easier for colonists to justify disposing of the Powhatans.
• The Indian presence hindered the colonists’ desire for land, a valuable commodity sought by Europeans.

AHC Note — The Third Anglo-Powhatan War (1644–1646) was fought between Jamestown and the Powhatan Confederacy in the area known to the Powhatans as Tsenacomoco and Virginia to the colonists. Virginia won the war and brought an end to the once-powerful Powhatan Confederacy.

The Indians’ New World

European colonization significantly disrupted Native American life across North America. Early Indian civilizations. Colonization brought demographic and cultural changes, although horses introduced a benefit to tribes like the Lakota Sioux. However, contact generally had negative effects, including the loss of lands and traditional lifestyles. Old World diseases devastated Indian populations, leading to cultural extinctions and forced migrations. European trade altered traditional networks and intensified intertribal violence. Coastal tribes faced the harshest effects, while inland tribes like the Algonquians adapted, creating a “middle ground” of mutual accommodation with European traders.

Foreshadowing Indigenous Destinies

• The fate of the Powhatans was a precursor to that of Indians across the continent.
• Indian Nations had a rich history before European contact, with civilizations like the Mississippians and Anasazis experiencing rise and decline.

Impact of European Colonization

• Large-scale European colonization caused vast disruptions to the lives of Indians.
• Colonization led to unprecedented demographic and cultural changes in Indian Nations across North America.

The Introduction of Horses Benefits Indians

• Some changes, like the introduction of horses, were relatively beneficial.
• Horses, obtained from the Spanish, allowed Indians to migrate onto the Great Plains in the 18th Century.
• Peoples such as the Lakotas Sioux transitioned from sedentary forest dwellers to mounted nomadic hunters, thriving on the plains.

Detrimental Effects of Contact with Europeans on Indians

• For most other Indians, contact with Europeans had less positive effects, leading to adverse consequences, including the loss of ancestral hunting lands, farmlands, and traditional ways of life.

Impact of Disease

• Old World diseases were the biggest disruptors, devastating biologically defenseless Indian populations.
• Epidemics not only claimed lives but also extinguished entire cultures and reshaped others.
• Diseases often killed elders, who preserved oral traditions crucial to clan cohesion.
• Devastated tribes had to reinvent themselves without accumulated wisdom or kin networks.
• Forced migrations led to new tribal formations, such as the Catawba Nation, formed from different groups displaced by European arrival.

Transformation through Trade

• Traditional barter networks were replaced by European commerce.
• Firearms provided significant advantages and increased competition for hunting grounds.
• The desire for European trade goods intensified the violence between Indian tribes and nations.
• The competition for prime hunting grounds to obtain skins and pelts as part of the lucrative Fur Trade led to escalating cycles of violence.

Struggle to Control Place in the Atlantic Economy

• Indians were involved in the expanding Atlantic economy but struggled to control their role.
• English merchants tried to buy furs and skins at the lowest price they could, and the Indians felt disrespected.

Impact of European Contact on Coastal vs. Inland Tribes

• Coastal Indians experienced the most severe effects of European contact.
• Inland tribes, such as the Algonquians in the Great Lakes area, had time, space, and numbers to adapt.
• The Algonquians became a significant power in the Great Lakes Region by absorbing surrounding bands.

Adaptation and the Middle Ground

• Inland tribes negotiated from a position of strength with European traders.
• French traders, and some British traders, often conformed to Indian customs and took Indian wives.
• A “middle ground” emerged where Europeans and Native Americans accommodated each other until European numbers grew.

Virginia: Child of Tobacco

Jamestown’s success came with the planting of John Rolfe’s sweet tobacco, which became a highly sought-after cash crop in Europe. However, tobacco cultivation led to a need for massive amounts of land, as it depleted and ruined the soil. In 1619, Virginia established representative self-government with the creation of the House of Burgesses, setting a precedent for the American Colonies. It also established the Headright System to incentivize immigration. That same year, the first captive Africans arrived in Virginia. Following the outbreak of the Second Anglo-Powhatan War, King James I revoked Virginia’s charter and took control, making it a Royal Colony.

John Rolfe and the Tobacco Industry

• John Rolfe became the father of the tobacco industry in Virginia.
• Rolfe survived a shipwreck near Barbados and eventually made his way to Jamestown.
• By 1612, he perfected methods of raising and curing tobacco, making it more palatable.
• European demand for tobacco grew rapidly, leading to a “tobacco rush” in Virginia.
• Rolfe married Pocahontas.

Impact on Virginia Colony

• Tobacco crops were planted everywhere, including streets and graves in Jamestown.
• Colonists focused so heavily on tobacco that they initially imported food.
• Tobacco is hard on the soil, and fields must be rotated consistently.
• The need for land to grow more tobacco led to Westward Expansion, encroaching on Indian territories.

Economic Foundations and Consequences

• Virginia’s prosperity was built on tobacco, the “bewitching weed,” which provided firm economic foundations.
• Tobacco, though profitable, tied Virginia’s fortunes to the crop’s fluctuating price.
• The crop promoted the Plantation System and increased the demand for labor.

Cultural Reflections

• Benjamin Franklin noted the cultural differences between Europeans and Native Americans.
• Indian children raised among Europeans often returned to their native ways, while Europeans captured by Indians frequently preferred Indian life.

Introduction of Africans to Virginia

• In 1619, an English privateer ship, White Lion, flying under a Dutch flag sold around 20 captive Africans to Jamestown.
• The captain of the ship was John Colyn Jope.
• Records are unclear if they were sold as lifelong slaves or indentured servants.
• This transaction is viewed as the start of the North American slave system.
• Initially, Africans were too expensive for most colonists, leading to limited numbers in Virginia.
• By 1650, Virginia had only 300 blacks, but by the century’s end, they made up approximately 14% of the population.

AHC Note — The White Lion is often identified as a Dutch ship. However, it was sailing under a Letter of Marque from Maurice, Prince of Orange. John Rolfe documented the arrival of the ship in a letter:

“About the latter end of August, a Dutch man of Warr of the burden of a 160 tunnes arrived at Point-Comfort, the Comandors name Capt Jope, his Pilott for the West Indies one Mr. Marmaduke an Englishman. They mett with the Treasurer in the West Indyes, and determined to hold consort shipp hetherward, but in their passage lost one the other. He brought not any thing but 20 and odd Negroes, which the Governor and Cape Marchant bought for victualls (whereof he was in greate need as he pretended) at the best and easyest rates they could.”

The House of Burgesses

• In 1619, the London Company authorized the settlers in Virginia to establish the House of Burgesses.
• This assembly was the first representative self-government in America.
• The House of Burgesses set a precedent for future legislative assemblies in the American Colonies.

AHC Note — The Headright System was implemented at the same time as the House of Burgesses. This system encouraged wealthy plantation owners to pay for people to emigrate from England to Virginia. Following Bacon’s Rebellion, the system was used to import captive Africans into the colony, where they were sold into slavery.

James I’s Hostility and Virginia’s Status

• King James I grew increasingly hostile to Virginia due to his dislike of tobacco and distrust of the House of Burgesses.
• He called the House of Burgesses a “seminary of sedition.”
• In 1624, James I revoked the Virginia Company’s charter, making Virginia a Royal Colony under the direct control of the Crown.

AHC Note — James I was also concerned about the ongoing hostilities between the Virginians and Indians. After the onset of the Second Anglo-Powhatan War, the Virginia Company struggled. The King ordered an investigation into the conduct of the colony’s leadership and revoked the charter. See Virginia Colony Guide for more information on the history of this colony.

Maryland: Catholic Haven

Founded in 1634 by Lord Baltimore, Maryland was the second Plantation Colony and the fourth English Colony in America. It was established as a refuge for Catholics. Lord Baltimore granted large estates to his Catholic relatives, however, the majority of settlers were Protestant, creating tension. Despite this, Maryland thrived on tobacco cultivation and relied heavily on indentured servants. Black slavery only gained popularity in Maryland in the late 1600s. Maryland’s Act of Toleration guaranteed religious freedom for Christians but imposed the death penalty on Jews, and others who denied the divinity of Jesus Christ.

Founding of Maryland

• Maryland, the second Plantation Colony, and the fourth English Colony, was founded in 1634 by Lord Baltimore.
• Lord Baltimore, from a prominent English Catholic family, aimed for financial profit and to create a refuge for Catholics.
• In Protestant England, Roman Catholics faced persecution, including marriage restrictions.

AHC Note — The charter for Maryland was negotiated by George Calvert, the 1st Baron Baltimore. However, he died about five weeks before it was finalized. His son, Cecil Calvert, became the 2nd Lord Baltimore and carried out the establishment of Maryland. See Maryland Colony Guide and Maryland Facts for more information on the history of this colony.

Establishment and Settler Dynamics

• Lord Baltimore envisioned Maryland as a Feudal Domain with large estates for his Catholic relatives.
• The first settlement was at St. Marys on Chesapeake Bay with 200 settlers.
• Colonists demanded their land ownership, leading to a spread of small farms around the Chesapeake.

Tension Between Catholics and Protestants

• Catholic land barons were surrounded by mostly Protestant backcountry planters.
• This led to resentment and open rebellion near the end of the century.
• The Baltimore family temporarily lost its proprietary rights due to the unrest.

Indentured Servants and Slaves in Maryland

• Maryland prospered similarly to Virginia, with extensive tobacco cultivation.
• Initially, labor was provided mainly by white indentured servants who worked to pay their passage.
• Large-scale importation of black slaves into Maryland did not start until the end of the 17th Century.

AHC Note — Maryland also used the Headright System to encourage immigration.

Religious Freedom in Maryland

• Lord Baltimore allowed Freedom of Religion to ensure toleration for Catholics.
• The influx of Protestants threatened to impose restrictions on Catholics, as in England.

Act of Toleration (1649)

• To avoid disaster, Catholics supported the Act of Toleration, passed in 1649.
• The Act of Toleration guaranteed religious freedom to all Christians.
• It imposed the death penalty on those, such as Jews and atheists, who denied the divinity of Jesus.
• Although it reduced overall toleration, it protected the Catholic minority.
• By the end of the Colonial Era, Maryland likely had more Roman Catholics than any other English-speaking colony in the New World.

The West Indies: Way Station to Mainland America

As the English colonized Virginia, they also started settling in the West Indies, taking advantage of Spain’s declining power in the region. By the mid-1600s, England had claimed several islands, including Jamaica. They established Sugar Plantations, which led to the importation of thousands of African slaves. To manage the large slave population, Slave Codes were established that restricted the rights of enslaved people and defined them as property.

English Colonization of the West Indies

• While establishing colonies in the Chesapeake Region, the English also colonized the West Indies.
• Spain, weakened by military overextension and conflicts in the Dutch provinces, loosened its control over the Caribbean in the early 1600s.
• By the mid-17th Century, England secured several West Indian islands, including Jamaica in 1655.

Sugar Economy in the Caribbean

• Sugar became the foundation of the economy in the West Indies.
• Unlike tobacco in the Chesapeake, sugar cane was a rich man’s crop.
• Sugar cultivation required extensive planting, labor-intensive land clearing, and an elaborate refining process in sugar mills.
• Only wealthy growers with substantial capital could succeed in the sugar industry due to its capital-intensive nature.

Expansion of Sugar Plantations and Importation of Slaves

• The “sugar lords” expanded their control over the West Indies in the 17th Century.
• To work the plantations, they imported over 250,000 African slaves between 1640 and 1690.
• By 1700, black slaves outnumbered white settlers in the English West Indies nearly four to one.
• The population of the region has remained predominantly black ever since, part of the African Diaspora.

Barbados Slave Code of 1661

• To manage the large slave population, English authorities created formal codes.
• The Barbados Slave Code of 1661 defined the legal status of slaves and the rights of masters.
• This code denied slaves fundamental rights and granted masters near-total control, including the right to inflict severe punishments for minor infractions.

AHC Note — The 1661 Barbados Slave Code explicitly defined slaves as chattel — property — no different than land, buildings, or livestock.

Dominance of Sugar Plantations and Economic Dependency

• The Sugar Plantation System became dominant in the Caribbean, crowding out almost all other forms of agriculture.
• The West Indies increasingly relied on the North American mainland for foodstuffs and basic supplies.

Migration and Influence on Mainland Colonies

• Smaller English farmers, displaced by the owners of the large Sugar Plantations, migrated to the mainland and the Southern Colonies.
• Displaced settlers from Barbados arrived in Carolina in 1670, bringing African slaves and the model of the Barbados Slave Code.
• Carolina adopted a version of the Barbados Slave Code in 1696.

Slavery in the West Indies as a Model for Mainland Slavery

• The slave system in the Caribbean Islands spread to English North America.
• The influence of the Barbados Slave Code extended to statutes governing slavery throughout the English Colonies on the mainland.

Colonizing the Carolinas

In England, following the beheading of King Charles I and a decade of strict rule by Oliver Cromwell, the monarchy was restored with Charles II, an event known as “The Stuart Restoration.” Carolina, named after Charles II, was formally established in 1670. It prospered by developing close economic ties with the West Indies, particularly through the port of Charleston. Many of the original settlers in Carolina came from Barbados, bringing with them strict Slave Codes. Despite protests, Indians were also enslaved and sent to the West Indies and New England. Rice became the principal crop in Carolina, and African slaves were employed on rice plantations. Despite conflicts with Spanish and Indian groups, Carolina flourished.

English Civil War and Interruption of Colonization

• England suffered through a Civil War in the 1640s.
• King Charles I dismissed Parliament in 1629.
• This period of 11 years is known as the “Personal Rule” or the “Eleven Years’ Tyranny.”
• He recalled Parliament in 1640, leading to mutiny by Parliament and Puritan opponents. 
• Oliver Cromwell led the Puritan forces, and King Charles I was beheaded in 1649.
• Cromwell ruled England for nearly a decade as “Lord Protector.”.
• Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660, known as the “Stuart Restoration,” which started the Restoration Period.

Resumption of Colonization During the Restoration

• Colonization of English territory in North America resumed with greater intensity and royal involvement during the Restoration Period.
• Carolina was formally created in 1670, and named after King Charles II.
• The King granted land to eight of his court favorites, the Lords Proprietors.
• These Lords Proprietors intended to grow food for the Barbados Sugar Plantations and export products like wine, silk, and olive oil.

Economic Ties and Slave Trade in Carolina

• Carolina developed close economic ties to the English West Indies.
• Many original settlers in Carolina emigrated from Barbados, bringing the slave system and slave code with them.
• Carolina established a slave trade, enlisting the Savannah Indians to capture Indians from the interior. The captives were then enslaved.
• Despite protests from the Lords Proprietors in London, Indian slave trading flourished.
• Indian slaves became a major export for Carolina, with as many as 10,000 sent to the West Indies and New England.

Conflict with the Savannah Indians

• In 1707, the Savannah Indians decided to migrate to Maryland and Pennsylvania, seeking better relations with whites under William Penn.
• Carolinians launched raids to prevent their departure, leading to the near annihilation of Indian tribes along the Carolina coast by 1710.

Rice as Principal Export Crop

• Rice emerged as Carolina’s principal export crop after much experimentation.
• Rice was exotic in England, with no seeds initially sent from London.
• Carolina paid premium prices for West African slaves skilled in rice cultivation.
• By 1710, Africans were the majority of Carolina’s population.

Development of Charles Town

• Charles Town, named after the King, became the busiest seaport in the South.
• It attracted adventurous sons of English families that owned land, giving it an aristocratic flavor.
• The village became a diverse community with religious toleration attracting various refugees, including French Protestants.
• Over time, the name evolved to “Charleston.”

Conflict with Spanish Florida

• Catholic Spaniards in Florida opposed the Protestant presence in Carolina.
• Carolina’s frontier experienced frequent conflicts, with Spanish-incited Indians and Spanish warriors attacking during the Anglo-Spanish Wars.
• By 1700, Carolina had become too strong for the Spanish to eliminate.

The Emergence of North Carolina

Many newcomers to Carolina were squatters from Virginia who developed a strong resistance to authority because of their geographic isolation. Two distinct groups emerged — the wealthy aristocrats in the south around Charleston, focusing on rice and indigo plantations, and the independent-minded farmers in the north on small tobacco farms. In 1712, North and South Carolina officially separated. When the Tuscarora Indians attacked North Carolina in 1711, the Carolinians defeated them, selling hundreds of Indians into slavery and forcing the survivors to migrate north, where they joined the Iroquois Confederacy. See North Carolina History and North Carolina Colony Guide for more information on the history of this colony.

Settlement of North Carolina

• The northern portion of Carolina, bordering Virginia, attracted poverty-stricken outcasts and religious dissenters from Virginia.
• Many newcomers disliked Virginia’s wealthy Planter Class and the dominance of the Church of England.
• North Carolinians were often “squatters” without legal land rights, cultivating small farms with little need for slaves.

Development of North Carolina Culture

• North Carolina’s inhabitants gained a reputation for being non-religious and hospitable to pirates.
• Isolation by wilderness and Cape Hatteras created a strong resistance to authority.
• The area was known as “a vale of humility between two mountains of conceit” due to its location between aristocratic Virginia and South Carolina.
• North Carolina separated from South Carolina in 1712 and became a Royal Colony.

Similarities with Rhode Island

• North Carolina and Rhode Island were the most democratic, independent-minded, and least aristocratic of the 13 Original Colonies.

Conflict with Native Americans in North Carolina

• Northern Carolina initially did not import large numbers of African slaves.
• Both northern and southern Carolina experienced violent conflicts with Native Americans.
• In 1711, the Tuscarora Indians attacked the settlement at Newbern, initiating the Tuscarora War.
• North Carolinians, with help from South Carolinians, defeated the Tuscaroras, selling hundreds into slavery and driving survivors northward.

Integration and Further Conflicts

• The Tuscarora joined the Iroquois Confederacy, transforming the Five Nations into the Six Nations.
• In 1715, South Carolinians defeated and dispersed the Yamasee Indians during the Yamasee War.
• By 1720, most coastal Indian tribes in the Southern Colonies had been devastated.

Continued Native American Resistance

• In the Appalachian Mountains, the Cherokees, Creeks, and Iroquois remained strong.
• These tribes contained British settlements to the coastal plain east of the mountains for another half-century.

Late-Coming Georgia: The Buffer Colony

Georgia was established in 1733 to serve as a buffer between British colonies, Spanish settlements in Florida, and French settlements in Louisiana. Founded by philanthropists, primarily James Oglethorpe, it was named after King George II and intended as a refuge for debtors. Oglethorpe, a capable soldier-statesman, successfully repelled Spanish attacks and used his fortune to support the colony. All Christians, except Catholics, enjoyed religious toleration, attracting many missionaries, including John Wesley, who later founded Methodism. Despite these efforts, Georgia’s growth was slow.

Founding of Georgia and Purpose

• Georgia, with its main settlement by the harbor of Savannah, was founded in 1733.
• The English Crown wanted Georgia to serve as a buffer to protect the Carolinas from the Spanish in Florida and the French in Louisiana.
• It was the last of the 13 Colonies to be established — 126 years after Virginia and 52 years after Pennsylvania.

Military Support from the Crown

• As a crucial part of imperial defense, Georgia received monetary subsidies from the British government during its founding, a benefit not granted to the other colonies.
• Georgia experienced significant conflict, particularly during wars between Spain and England.

AHC Note — Georgia’s reliance on military support from Great Britain was one of the reasons the colony was slow to officially join the Patriot Cause. It did not officially send delegates to the First Continental Congress, but it did adopt the Articles of Association, was part of the Continental Association, and sent delegates to the Second Continental Congress.

Founding and Purpose of Georgia

• Georgia was named in honor of King George II of England and founded in 1733 by philanthropists.
• The colony aimed to protect the northern colonies, produce silk and wine, and serve as a haven for debtors.
• The founders initially intended to keep slavery out of Georgia.

James Oglethorpe’s Leadership

• James Oglethorpe, a key founder, was a soldier-statesman interested in prison reform.
• He repelled Spanish attacks and saved the colony through his leadership and personal financial support.
• Oglethorpe led Georgia’s military forces in the War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739–1748).

Savannah

• Savannah, like Charleston, was a diverse community with German Lutherans and Scots Highlanders.
• Religious toleration was extended to all Christian worshipers except Catholics.
• Missionaries, including John Wesley who later founded the Methodist Church, worked among debtors and Indians in Savannah.

Challenges and Growth

• Georgia grew slowly and remained one of the least populous colonies at the end of the Colonial Era.
• Development was hindered by an unhealthy climate, colonists who were unwilling to work, and threats of Spanish attacks.

The Plantation Colonies

Slavery was prevalent in all the Plantation Colonies. Dense forests stunted city growth, and the scattered population made it difficult to establish schools and churches. In the South, tobacco, rice, and indigo were the primary crops. These colonies allowed some degree of religious toleration. Frequent confrontations with Indians occurred as settlers expanded their territories.

Mainland Southern Colonies

The mainland Southern Colonies were:

• Maryland
• Virginia
• North Carolina
• South Carolina
• Georgia

Common Characteristics

• Agriculture — Devoted to exporting commercial agricultural products, primarily tobacco and rice. Slavery: Present in all plantation colonies, with Georgia adopting it after 1750. 
• Aristocracy — Strong aristocratic atmosphere due to large landholdings, except in North Carolina and partially in Georgia. 
• Urban and Educational Development — Scattered plantations and farms along rivers hindered city growth and made establishing churches and schools difficult and costly.

Religious Toleration

• Religious Toleration was practiced in all the Plantation Colonies.
• The tax-supported Church of England was dominant, but weakest in North Carolina.

Expansion and Settlement Patterns

• Soil depletion from tobacco farming helped push farmers west and further inland.
• Indentured Servants were also granted land on the frontier, because of the Headright System.
• Long rivers and waterways helped the English colonists push further inland, where they came into contact with more Indian tribes.

Resources for the Planting of English America

The notes on this page are based on the 16th edition of The American Pageant. We have expanded on the source material with additional details, corrections, and links to Encyclopedia Entries that explain topics in more detail. For more information, including terms and definitions, see the following:

• Advanced Placement United States History (APUSH) Units
• The Planting of English America (1500–1733)
• Settling the Northern Colonies (1619–1700)
• American Life in the 17th Century (1607–1692)
• Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution (1700–1775)
• The Duel for North America (1608–1763)
• America Secedes from the Empire (1775–1783)