Presidential Election of 1800

Essential Facts

• Date(s): November 1800–February 1801.
• Primary Candidates for President: John Adams (Federalist), Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican).
• Primary Candidates for Vice-President: Charles Cotesworth Pinckney (Federalist), Aaron Burr (Democratic-Republican).
• Outcome: Jefferson was elected President by the House of Representatives, after tying with Burr in the Electoral College.
• Part of: United States Presidential Elections, Federalist Era, Age of Jefferson.

Key Details

• Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr both received 73 Electoral Votes, defeating the incumbent President, John Adams.
• Jefferson and Burr were both members of the Democratic-Republican Party.
• At the time, the person with the most votes in the Electoral College became President, and the runner-up became Vice President.
• Due to the tie between Jefferson and Burr, the election was moved to the House of Representatives, where each state was given a vote.
• Jefferson eventually won after six days of voting, on the 36th ballot.
• The election highlighted flaws in the original Electoral College, which led to the 12th Amendment, requiring separate ballots for President and Vice President.
• Democratic-Republicans gained control of the national government for the first time.
• In 1819, Jefferson referred to the peaceful transfer of power from one party to another as the “Revolution of 1800.”
• Jefferson’s election marked the end of the Federalist Era and ushered in the Age of Jefferson.

Important Dates

• 1800, May: Federalists nominated John Adams for President and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.
• 1800, May–December: The 16 states in the Union selected delegates for the Electoral College.
• 1800, December 16: In the final vote, Jefferson and Burr tied with 73 votes.
• 1801, February 11: The House of Representatives took its first vote to break the tie.
• 1801, February 17: Thomas Jefferson was elected president on the 36th ballot.
• 1801, March 4: Thomas Jefferson was sworn in as the third President of the United States.
• 1804: The 12th Amendment was ratified, requiring separate ballots for President and Vice President in the Electoral College.

Significance

The Presidential Election of 1800 is important to American History for establishing the precedent of a peaceful transition of power between political parties in the United States. It also exposed weaknesses in the original electoral process and led to the passage of the 12th Amendment.

History

Thomas Jefferson defeated the incumbent President, John Adams, in the 1800 Presidential Election. Despite controversy, the election marked the peaceful transfer of power from the Federalist Party to the Democratic-Republican Party, an event that has been referred to as the “Revolution of 1800.”

• Two candidates from the Democratic-Republican Party, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, tied with the same number of electoral votes.
• The House of Representatives decided the outcome of the election for the first time in U.S. history, choosing Jefferson as the Third President of the United States.

John Adams (1735–1826) — Adams was a Founding Father, America’s First Ambassador to the Court of St. James, and the Second President of the United States. He was also the first Vice President, serving two terms under George Washington.

Aaron Burr (1756–1836) — A U.S. Senator and Vice President of the United States. under Thomas Jefferson. Burr killed Alexander Hamilton in an infamous duel in 1804. He was also tried and acquitted of treason for allegedly trying to establish a separate empire in the southwest.

Thomas Jefferson, the Democratic-Republican Candidate

The Democratic-Republicans supported Thomas Jefferson as their candidate for President, believing his election would protect the ideals of the American Revolution.

• The party criticized Jay’s Treaty (1794) as favoring British interests.
• It opposed the Alien and Sedition Acts, claiming they threatened free speech and immigrants’ rights.
• The party viewed the Quasi-War with France (1798–1800) as unnecessary and the result of Federalist foreign policy toward France.
• It argued that the Federalist Party was a threat to the freedoms gained with the American Revolution.

Jay’s Treaty (1794) — A key agreement between the United States and Britain that helped ease tension between the two nations. Widely criticized in America, the treaty was beneficial to Britain but helped the U.S avoid war. However, it created tension with France that contributed to the Quasi-War.

Quasi-War with France (1798–1800) — An undeclared naval war between the United States and France during the Presidency of John Adams. It grew out of the XYZ Affair and ended when French politics shifted direction after Napoleon came to power, and the two nations signed the Treaty of Mortefontaine (1800).

Alien and Sedition Acts (1798) — Four laws passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress and signed by President John Adams intended to reduce foreign influence in the United States and public criticism of the government. However, the laws were controversial and contributed to the rise of the Democratic-Republican Party to power in 1800.

Choosing Electors in 1800

In 1800, the United States Constitution allowed each state to decide how and when to select its delegates to the Electoral College. The process of choosing delegates occurred between May and December 1800.

• In 10 states, the delegates were chosen by the legislature. Those states were New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, South Carolina, and Georgia.
• Rhode Island and Virginia chose their delegates through a statewide election.
• In Maryland, North Carolina, and Kentucky, voters selected delegates by district.
• Tennessee used a combination of the district and legislative methods to select delegates.

Electoral College — The body that meets every four years to elect the President and Vice President of the U.S, in a process established by Article II of the Constitution. Each state in the Union has delegates, or Electors, who cast ballots for both offices. The number of Electors for each state is determined by the number of members it has in the two houses of Congress. Today, most Electors are required to cast their votes for the candidates who win their state’s popular vote.

Mid-Atlantic Swing States

The outcome of the election depended on regional support. While the Federalists dominated the industrial North, the Democratic-Republicans dominated the agrarian South.

• Federalists expected to win most of New England, excluding Rhode Island. They also expected to carry Delaware in the Mid-Atlantic States, and believed they had a chance to win South Carolina in the South.
• Democratic-Republicans were confident they would win Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Georgia. However, they needed to maintain control of the South and gain electoral votes in the Mid-Atlantic.

As a result, New York and Pennsylvania were crucial in determining if President John Adams would be reelected or removed from office after one term.

Burr Secures New York for Jefferson

In May 1800, New York held elections for public offices. Led by Aaron Burr, the Democratic-Republicans gained legislative seats in New York City, giving them control of the state legislature and an advantage in the upcoming Presidential Election.

• Burr outmaneuvered Alexander Hamilton, his political rival, during the local elections.
• This propelled him into the spotlight and helped him secure a place on the party’s national ticket alongside Jefferson.

Alexander Hamilton, the leader of the Federalist Party and a powerful faction known as the “High Federalists,” was concerned that the newly elected New York legislature would choose delegates to the Electoral College who would vote for Democratic-Republicans.

• With Burr’s victory, New York’s electors were expected to support Jefferson before the start of the Presidential Election.
• Hamilton and others asked Governor John Jay to reconvene the old, Federalist-controlled legislature so it could select the delegates.
• Jay refused, believing it would be an unethical political trick.

Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804) — A Founding Father and the first Secretary of the Treasury. He led calls for the Philadelphia Convention and co-authored the Federalist Papers. He was killed in a duel with Aaron Burr in 1804.

John Jay (1745–1829) — Jay was a Founding Father and the First Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Jay represented New York in the Continental Congress and was an author of the Federalist Papers. He wrote the Constitution of New York and served as Governor from 1795 to 1801.

Hamilton’s Scheme to Replace Adams

The Federalist Party held its convention in early May 1800 and nominated Adams for a second term. Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina was chosen to run for Vice President. However, Hamilton, who disliked Adams and often clashed with him, sought to help Pinckney win the office instead of Adams.

• Hamilton worked to unite electors in New England and the Mid-Atlantic behind both Adams and Pinckney.
• However, he hoped South Carolina would support Pinckney, giving him an edge in the Electoral College over Adams.

Charles Cotesworth Pinckney (1756–1825) — Pinckney was a Founding Father, a member of the Continental Army, a delegate to the Constitutional Convention, and a signer of the Constitution. Pinckney also served as an envoy to France during the notorious XYZ Affair, at which time he responded to French bribery efforts with his famous quote, “No, no, not a sixpence.” Pinckney was the unsuccessful Federalist presidential candidate in 1804 and in 1808.

AHC Note — At this time, each delegate to the Electoral College cast two votes. The candidate with the most votes became President, and the second-place finisher became Vice President. 

Adams Retaliates

Adams suspected Hamilton of undermining his authority within the party. He already blamed Hamilton for the party’s losses in New York. Adams said Hamilton was “a man devoid of every moral principle.” Afterward, he started removing Hamilton’s allies from his cabinet, leading to an open split in the party.

• Adams confronted Secretary of War James McHenry and forced him to resign.
• He targeted Secretary of State Timothy Pickering, who refused to resign. Adams responded by firing him.
• When Pickering declined to resign, Adams fired him.

James McHenry (1753–1816) — McHenry was a signer of the Constitution and was responsible for suggesting to Congress that it should establish the U.S. Navy. He served as Secretary of War under President Washington and President Adams, before Adams forced him to resign due to his association with Alexander Hamilton. Fort McHenry in Baltimore is named after him.

Timothy Pickering (1745–1829) — Pickering was a Federalist leader, Revolutionary War officer, and statesman who held several cabinet posts under Presidents Washington and Adams. He supported a strong national government but later advocated for states’ rights when political control shifted. Known for his opposition to slavery and the War of 1812, Pickering also played a central role in the XYZ Affair. In later years, he promoted New England secession.

Hamilton Attacks Adams

Hamilton wrote a letter criticizing Adams’s character, claiming Adams had “defects in his character” that made him unfit to be President.

• He accused Adams of poor judgment, inconsistency, vanity, and jealousy.
• Although Hamilton intended the letter for private circulation, Democratic-Republicans obtained a copy.
• They published it in the newspapers for the entire nation to read.
• This embarrassed the Federalist Party and damaged its unity as it headed into the election.
• Despite the party’s internal division, Adams came close to winning the election.

Criticisms of the Adams Administration

Despite being one of the nation’s most important Founding Fathers, Adams had a reputation for being stubborn, critical of others, and challenging to work with. Various incidents with France hurt his administration, including the XYZ Affair and the Quasi-War with France.

• Adams’s refusal to engage in a war with France damaged the public’s view of the Federalist Party.
• War preparations increased public debt and led to an unpopular tax that contributed to a small insurgency in Pennsylvania known as Fries’s Rebellion..
• When the threat of war ended, the military preparations were seen as unnecessary.
• Seamen in new Navy were derogatorily called “John Adams’s Jackasses.”
• Critics accused Adams of supporting the establishment of a monarchy.

Adams was also criticized for the Alien and Sedition Acts, which are viewed by some as violating the Constitution. Both Jefferson and James Madison agreed with this viewpoint and wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions in response to the acts. These Resolutions established the concept of “nullification,” a theory that argued states could refuse to follow a Federal law if they thought it was unconstitutional.

XYZ Affair (1797–1800) — A diplomatic scandal between the United States and France that led to an undeclared naval war known as the Quasi-War. The XYZ Affair played a significant role in shaping American foreign policy and domestic politics, contributing to the political divide that ultimately led to the Civil War.

Federalist Mud-Slinging

Leading up to the election, the Federalists attacked Jefferson in the press.

• Jefferson was accused of robbing a widow and her children and having children with Sally Hemings, one of his female slaves.
• Jefferson faced criticism from orthodox clergy due to his efforts to separate church and state in Virginia.
• Despite believing in God, Jefferson was accused of atheism by preachers in New England.

Outcome of the Swing States

In Pennsylvania, the election process was delayed due to a disagreement between the two chambers of the state legislature.

• The lower house, controlled by the Democratic-Republican Party, and the Senate, controlled by the Federalist Party, could not agree on how to cast the state’s Electoral Votes.
• This delayed the final outcome of the election.
• On November 29, Pennsylvania resolved its deadlock by agreeing to split its vote.
• It selected eight delegates for the Democratic-Republicans and seven for the Federalists.

In New Jersey, the Federalist-controlled legislature chose delegates for both Adams and Pinckney, even though Jefferson would have won the popular vote.

The final outcome of the election depended on South Carolina, as some had predicted. However, Pinckney refused to let the South Carolina legislature give him more votes than Adams. This gave Democratic-Republicans an opportunity and they were able to secure eight Electoral Votes each for Jefferson and Burr.

Constitutional Crisis

By December 16, the results of the 1800 Presidential Election were known, and a constitutional crisis emerged.

• Jefferson and Burr each received 73 Electoral Votes.
• Adams received 65 votes, and Pinckney received 64.
• John Jay received one vote.

At this time, the Constitution stipulated that the House of Representatives must resolve a tie in the Electoral College.

• The House, which the Federalist Party controlled, had the ironic task of choosing the next President from between two Democratic-Republicans.
• The House would vote by state delegation, with each state casting one vote.
• To win the office, either Jefferson or Burr needed the support of nine of the 16 state delegations.

AHC Note — Vermont, Tennessee, and Kentucky were the first three states added to the Union of the 13 Original States.

• Eight supported Jefferson outright, over Burr.
• The Federalists controlled six state delegations, who had to choose between Jefferson and Burr.
• Two state delegations were evenly divided between Jefferson and Burr.

Burr saw he had an opportunity to become President, so he did not openly concede to Jefferson, nor did he reject the Federalists who were interested in voting for him. For the most part, he kept quiet during the proceedings.

• Some Federalists saw the situation as an opportunity to block Jefferson from the presidency.
• They tried to gain Burr’s cooperation.

Voting Begins in the House of Representatives

The House of Representatives started voting on February 11, 1801, and the members agreed to remain in Washington, D.C., until the election was resolved. This was important because the Constitution required the new President to be inaugurated by March 4.

• Uncertainty spread over what would happen if the House failed to make a decision by the deadline.
• The first 35 ballots produced no change: 8 states voted Jefferson, 6 for Burr, and two remained divided.

Rumors of civil unrest spread throughout the country. The governors of Virginia, James Monroe, and Pennsylvania, Thomas McKean, prepared their militias in anticipation of the Federalist Party attempting to seize power.

Hamilton, who had an intense political and personal rivalry with Burr, called on Federalists to withdraw support for him.

James Monroe (1758–1831) — Monroe was a Founding Father, veteran of the Revolutionary War, and the 5th President of the United States. He helped found the Democratic-Republican Party, served as Governor of Virginia, Minister to France, and Secretary of State. He helped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase. As President, he oversaw the start of the “Era of Good Feelings,” established the Monroe Doctrine, and authorized the purchase of Florida. He was the last of the Founding Fathers to hold the office of President.

Thomas McKean (1734–1817) — McKean was a well-known lawyer, politician, and judge from New London, Pennsylvania. He is a Founding Father because he signed the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation, and was the second President of Congress under the Articles of Confederation.

The House Elects Jefferson

The House took its 36th ballot on February 17, 1801, and the tie between Jefferson and Burr was finally broken as 10 states voted for Jefferson, four for Burr, and two abstained.

• Federalists from Vermont and Maryland abstained from voting, allowing their states to support Jefferson.
• James Bayard, the only representative from Delaware, cast a blank ballot after previously supporting Burr.
• South Carolina’s representatives submitted a blank ballot.

AHC Note — Some accounts indicate that Bayard thought Jefferson agreed to certain political demands, but Jefferson denied having done so.

The Peaceful Revolution of 1800

On March 4, 1801, Jefferson was inaugurated as president. This marked the first time the Democratic-Republicans had control of the Federal Government.

• Jefferson’s inauguration represented a peaceful transition of power between political parties.
• In his inaugural address, Jefferson promised to restore the principles of the American Revolution to the Federal Government.
• The peaceful transfer of power is known as the “Revolution of 1800.”
• Despite the victory, the narrow margin between Jefferson and Adams in the Electoral College did not indicate overwhelming support for the Democratic-Republicans’ agenda.

Despite Jefferson’s victory, Timothy Pickering and other Federalist leaders to harshly refer to him as the “Negro President” because the Three-Fifths Clause in the Constitution boosted the Electoral Votes of the Southern States. 

Three-Fifths Compromise — A compromise made during the Philadelphia Convention, establishing that each enslaved person would be counted as three-fifths of a person for purposes of representation and taxation. Southern states, with larger enslaved populations, sought to count enslaved individuals fully to gain more representation in the House of Representatives, while Northern states opposed this. It increased Southern political influence in Congress without fully recognizing the rights of enslaved people, and it remained in effect until the Civil War and the ratification of the 13th Amendment, which abolished slavery.

The 12th Amendment

• The Twelfth Amendment was ratified in 1804.
• It required electors to cast separate ballots for President and Vice President.
• This was done to avoid ties in the Electoral College and the situation that occurred after the 1800 Election.

AP US History Alignment

The Presidential Election of 1800 is part of the following units, topics, and chapters in the AP US History curriculum:

Unit 4: 1800–1848

• 4.4 — America on the World Stage

Notes

• Triumphs and Travails of the Jeffersonian Republic (1800–1812)

Appendix

Text of the 12th Amendment to the United States Constitution

The Electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; — the President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted; — The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. [And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. –]* The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.