Overview
The Protestant Reformation was a 16th-century religious movement that started in 1517 when Martin Luther challenged the sale of indulgences and church corruption. It led to a permanent split in Western Christianity, resulting in the formation of Protestant denominations, including Lutheran, Reformed, and Anglican, as well as other non-conformist groups. The Reformation emphasized sola fide (faith alone) and sola scriptura (scripture alone), reshaped European politics and society, and influenced colonization in the Western Hemisphere. The division between Protestants and Catholics fueled the European Wars of Religion and other conflicts that drove Europeans to seek refuge in the New World.
Essential Facts
- Key People: Martin Luther, John Wycliffe, King Henry VIII, John Calvin, Johannes Gutenberg.
- Part Of: Age of Exploration, Settlement of the Americas, American Revolution.
- Significance: The Protestant Reformation is important to American History because it helped drive European immigration to the New World, contributing to the establishment of New France, New Spain, and the English Colonies in North America.
Key Details
- John Wycliffe (14th Century) and Jan Hus (15th Century) promoted reforms to the Church. Both were accused of heresy, and Hus was executed for his crime.
- The Protestant Reformation officially started with Martin Luther, who criticized the selling of indulgences by the Roman Catholic Church.
- The Reformation spread throughout Europe, aided by the Printing Press, as the Bible was translated into various languages, providing people with direct access to scripture.
- Geneva, Switzerland, became a center of Reformation influence, led by John Calvin.
- England broke from the Church in 1534, under King Henry VIII, who drove the English Reformation.
- The Peace of Augsburg (1555) allowed rulers in the Holy Roman Empire to choose between Catholicism and Protestantism.
- England reaffirmed its commitment to Protestantism in 1559, under Queen Elizabeth I, with the passage of the Elizabethan Settlement. This contributed to the persecution and harassment of Catholics and Non-Conformists in England, including Puritans and Quakers.
- The growth of Protestant denominations influenced European colonization and shaped the spread of religion in the New World.
Historical Notes
The Protestant Reformation refers to a religious movement that protested against the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century. It is considered one of the most significant religious events in history, with effects that continue to impact the world today, second only to the founding of the Christian Church in the 1st Century.
Context of the Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation took place during the Renaissance, a period of cultural change in art, science, literature, political thought, and technology.
- The Feudal System was declining, and the middle class was gaining more power socially and politically.
- Johannes Gutenberg invented a movable-type printing process, which became crucial to the success of the Reformation.
- Gutenberg’s Printing Press enabled individuals like Desiderius Erasmus to publish works, such as his Greek New Testament in 1516, which helped people refocus on the Scriptures.
AHC Notes
- Renaissance — A period of intellectual, artistic, and cultural rebirth that spanned roughly from the 14th to the 17th Century. It originated in Italy and gradually spread throughout Europe. The Renaissance marked a shift from the medieval worldview to a renewed focus on humanism, exploration, scientific inquiry, and the revival of classical knowledge and art.
- Feudal System — A socio-economic system that emerged in Medieval Europe. In this system, land was granted by a lord to vassals in exchange for loyalty, military service, and agricultural labor. Feudalism was characterized by a hierarchical structure, with the monarch (King or Queen) at the top, followed by nobles, knights, and peasants. The economic foundation of the system was based on land ownership and agricultural production, with the peasantry working the land and providing labor and resources to the upper classes. The Feudal System declined in Europe with the rise of centralized Nation-States and the transition to Capitalist Economies.
Grievances and Beliefs of the Reformers
Protestant reformers protested against the abuse of papal authority, rejecting the selling of indulgences, a merit-based system of penance, and the Pope’s role as the head of the Church. Other grievances focused on the Church’s wealth:
- The wealth of Rome and the clergy created corruption.
- Absentee priests collected money from their parishes but performed no pastoral service.
- Church fees and tithes were funneled into the Church’s treasury, rather than being used to help the parishioners.
Reformers believed that Jesus Christ was the only true authority over the Church. They called for a return to the authority of Scripture (sola scriptura) as the only guide for the Church.
- Reformers wanted the Bible to be translated into common languages so that more people could study it.
- They rejected the exclusivity of the priesthood and argued that all God’s people have a divine calling to a specific vocation, encouraging involvement in church ministry.
- Salvation was seen as a gift from God, granted through faith (sola fide) and not through individual works or merits.
Reformers also held different views on marriage and the clergy.
- Reformers rejected the medieval Catholic ideal of monastic life and the notion that celibacy was necessary for priests, monks, and nuns.
- Reformers praised family life as valuable and honorable, considering it a “calling” equal to any other vocation.
- Reform ministers were often married, and their sons often followed in their footsteps.
AHC Notes
- Historians and scholars differ on the impact of the Reformation on women.
- Some argue that the Reformation improved the status of women, while others believe that women’s status remained unchanged.
- The reduction of convents removed one of the few options available to women in the 16th Century.
John Wycliffe and Jan Hus
Early efforts to reform the Church were led by John Wycliffe and Jan Hus. They were associated with a movement known as “Modern Devotion,” or Devotio Moderna, which focused on personal study and adherence to scripture.
- The Church determined that Wycliffe’s ideas were heretical. However, he suffered a debilitating stroke in 1383 and died in 1384, which kept him from being excommunicated. In 1415, he was declared to be a heretic, and his writings were banned.
- Hus followed in Wycliffe’s footsteps in supporting reforms. Later, Hus was excommunicated by Pope Alexander V and then invited to a council to discuss his views. Upon arrival, he was seized and ordered to recant, which he refused. The council convicted him of heresy and had him burned at the stake in 1415. His followers, known as “Hussites,” who lived in Central Europe, reacted by refusing to elect a Catholic monarch, leading to the Hussite Wars.
AHC Notes
- Hussite Wars (1419–1434) — A series of civil wars fought between Hussites and Catholic forces of the Holy Roman Empire over the expansion of Hussite influence in Central Europe. The wars ended in 1434, when the Hussites agreed to submit to the authority of the King of Bohemia and the Roman Catholic Church, who allowed them to continue practicing their rites. The Hussite Wars are notable because they are believed to have seen the first use of true firearms, known as “hand cannons,” and the circling of wagons to create a temporary defensive structure.
- Holy Roman Empire (c. 800—1806) — A coalition of nations that succeeded the Roman Empire, starting when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as the Holy Roman Emperor in 800 AD. The empire covered much of present-day Germany and Italy. It lasted until the early 1800s, when it was defeated by Napoleon and eventually dissolved during the French Revolutionary Wars.
Martin Luther and the Ninety-Five Theses
Martin Luther was a Catholic monk who sought personal salvation but became involved in opposing perceived abuses of power within the Roman Catholic Church.
- Luther criticized the selling of indulgences, a practice by which people could pay the Church to receive a “pardon” for their sins.
- Luther outlines his criticisms in his “Ninety-five Theses,” which, according to legend, he nailed to the door of All Saints’ Church in Wittenberg, Germany, on October 31, 1517.
- The Ninety-five Theses were translated, printed, and widely spread, marking the start of the Protestant Reformation and Lutheranism.
Henry VIII, Defender of the Faith
Angered by Luther’s actions, King Henry VIII responded with a treatise called “Defense of the Seven Sacraments” (Assertio Septem Sacramentorum).
- Henry affirmed the Pope’s authority over the Church and attacked Luther for his criticisms of the Pope, calling him “the most venomous serpent who had ever crept into the church.”
- Pope Leo X responded by giving Henry the title “Defender of the Faith” (Fidei Defensor) on October 11, 1521.
Henry VIII (1491–1547) — The second English monarch from the House of Tudor, Henry was notable for his six marriages, the creation of the Church of England, and significant political reforms. His desire for a male heir drove key decisions, including England’s break from the Catholic Church. Henry expanded royal authority, integrated Wales into England, reformed and expanded the navy, and suppressed unrest in Ireland. Despite these achievements, his rule was marked by harsh enforcement of religious supremacy driven by personal flaws, including issues with his ego, temper, and health.
Ulrich Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation
Ulrich Zwingli, a Catholic priest, led the Reformation in Switzerland. He started his reforms by giving detailed sermons in his parish in Zurich, instead of writing theses, like Luther.
- Zwingli was influenced by Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus and his translations of the New Testament.
- His teachings led to a return to more basic Christian practices and a rejection of Church doctrines that were not supported by Scripture.
- Zwingli’s reforms spread to the surrounding areas in Switzerland.
AHC Notes
- Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (c. 1466–1536) — Also known as Erasmus, or Erasumus of Rotterdam, he was a Dutch theologian and priest who influenced critical thinking during the Renaissance. He helped produce translations of the New Testament, written in Latin and Greek, that included annotations and commentary that influenced leaders of the Protestant Reformation.
John Calvin
John Calvin was born in Picardy, France, in 1509. Like Luther and Zwingli, he was trained for the priesthood. However, Calvin had a greater influence than either of them on Protestant denominations in churches in Europe and America.
- During his studies in France, Calvin learned Latin and Greek, which were needed in order to read the New Testament.
- In the early 1530s, he experienced a religious conversion, which is believed to have been influenced by French reformers or his professors, and broke away from the Roman Catholic Church.
- Religious tension in France compelled Calvin to flee to Switzerland, where he played a pivotal role in continuing the Swiss Reformation and ultimately emerged as a leading figure.
- In 1536, he published The Institutes of the Christian Religion, the first detailed defense of his theology.
Reform Groups and the Spread of Their Theologies
The early Reformers did not initially intend to create a split in the Church or Christianity. They wanted to reform the Church and return it to its traditional roots, based on scripture.
- The Catholic Church rejected theological reforms.
- Religious wars followed across Europe, deepening the reformers’ belief that the Catholic Church could not be fixed.
The Reformation featured a wide range of opinions, and most Protestant Movements fell into four main groups:
- Lutherans
- Reformers
- Anglicans
- Radicals
Most people learned about the Reform Movements through preachers and pamphlets. The Reformers promoted literacy because it increased the number of people they could reach and potentially convert.
- They wrote catechisms (a summary of principles) to explain beliefs in simple terms.
- They believed Bible reading would deepen understanding of the faith.
- Limited literacy in the period hindered the spread of theological ideas.
- Reformers expected large numbers of people to convert to the new faith.
Many teachings were complex and hard for peasants and artisans to understand. The literacy rate was also low. Because of these things, many people relied on hearing sermons and pamphlets read aloud to them. Despite these shortcomings, there was enthusiasm for the early Reformers, which led them to believe their work was blessed by God.
Lutheran Church (Lutherans)
Martin Luther became the first major Protestant theologian, and his followers are referred to as “Lutherans.” Luther’s conflict with the Church revolved around justification by faith alone (sola fide) and the idea that the Church should base itself on scripture alone (sola scriptura).
- Luther rejected the Pope’s claim to authority.
- He emphasized the central role of the Bible.
- Luther translated the New Testament into German.
- He redefined the meaning of the Eucharist and rejected the ideas of saints and relics.
Luther’s teachings caused controversy, and Pope Leo X excommunicated him in 1520.
- Pope Leo X also issued a Papal Bull called “Arise, O Lord” that outlined 41 errors he found in Luther’s Ninety-five Theses.
- In 1521, Luther refused to recant his beliefs at the Diet of Worms.
- Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, declared him a heretic and an outlaw.
Despite the Edict of Worms, Luther’s ideas spread quickly via sermons, plays, and pamphlets, much of which was enabled by the Printing Press.
- Luther’s concept of Christian liberty influenced the German Peasants’ War (1524–1525), which he condemned.
- Religious wars in the Holy Roman Empire continued until 1555.
- The Peace of Augsburg (1555) established that a region’s religion would match its prince’s personal faith.
- By 1560, Lutheranism had become the dominant religion in Scandinavia and in much of Germany, particularly in cities.
AHC Notes
- Justification by Faith — A doctrine that says a person’s righteousness before God comes through faith, not deeds or works.
- Printing Press — Developed by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century, the Printing Press was a device that used moveable type to mass-produce texts quickly and cheaply. It revolutionized communication by spreading ideas, religious reforms, and news worldwide, greatly expanding access to information and transforming political, cultural, and intellectual life.
- Diet of Worms (1521) — A meeting held in the city of Worms, in present-day Germany, to challenge Martin Luther and force him to explain his beliefs or recant them. The meeting was called for and overseen by Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor. When the proceedings concluded, the Edict of Worms was issued, branding Luther as a heretic and banning citizens of the Empire from sharing his ideas.
- German Peasants’ War (1524–1525) — A series of uprisings led by farmers and peasants in German-speaking areas of Central Europe, who were protesting against economic conditions and religious oppression imposed by the aristocracy and the Church. While Ulrich Zwingli supported the peasants, Luther condemned them. The peasant uprisings were eventually put down, but tens of thousands of people were killed. Estimates range from 100,000 to 300,000. It is believed that many of the leaders of the uprisings eventually joined the Anabaptist Movement. The Peasants’ War was the largest revolt in Europe prior to the French Revolution.
- Anabaptist Movement — The Anabaptists emerged during the Reformation, emphasizing adult baptism, pacifism, and the separation of church and state. Separate Anabaptist sects included the Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites, many of whom eventually emigrated from Europe and established communities in the Pennsylvania Colony.
Reformed Churches (Reformers)
The Reformed Movement and its churches were groups that shared similar beliefs to the Lutherans, but believed Martin Luther remained too close to some Catholic traditions. For example, they did not believe churches should have any images made in the likeness of Jesus or anyone else. The Reformed Churches supported:
- Justification through faith, not deeds.
- Authority of scripture.
- Christianity as the true religion of the Bible.
- Personal literacy, preaching, and teaching over ritual ceremonies
The Reformed Movement was strongest in western Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, but it also spread to portions of France, England, and Scotland. The movement flourished in cities, including Basel, Bern, Constance, Geneva, and Zurich.
After John Calvin fled France, he eventually settled in Geneva, which became a refuge for religious exiles. In 1541, Calvin established the Genevan Consistory to implement some of his ideas.
- In Geneva, ministers were trained who founded congregations in France and other regions in Europe.
- Calvin promoted close cooperation between civil and church authorities.
- Geneva’s church offices were divided into pastors, teachers, elders, and the Consistory.
The Reformed Movement stressed duty, obedience, modesty, temperance, and diligence.
- Its emphasis on secular duty and hard work aligned well with a capitalist economy.
- The movement appealed to urban artisans, lawyers, and tradesmen.
Church of England (Anglicans)
The concepts of the Reformation reached England in the 1520s but were suppressed by King Henry VIII and religious leaders. The situation started to change in the 1530s, after Henry and his wife, Catherine of Aragon, failed to produce a male heir.
- Henry wanted a male heir and asked Pope Clement V to annul his marriage to Catherine, so he could marry his mistress, Anne Boleyn.
- The Pope, influenced by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, refused the annulment.
Frustrated by political rivalries and the English clergy, Henry decided to take control of the Church in England
- Henry decided to assert control over the Church in England.
- In 1534, Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy, effectively separating England from the Roman Catholic Church.
- The Act of Supremacy declared the king “the supreme head of the Church of England.”
Henry VIII died in 1547, and was followed by his son, Henry VI, whose mother was Jane Seymour, Henry’s third wife. However, Henry was only nine years old, and England was ruled by his uncle, Edward Seymour, the Duke of Somerset, who was known as the “Lord Protector of the Realm.”
- England remained Protestant through 1553, when Edward VI died.
- Mary Tudor, the daughter of Henry VIII and Catharine of Aragon, followed Edward to the throne. Mary was Catholic, and England returned to Catholicism.
- During her reign as Queen Mary I, she reversed Protestant reforms and persecuted dissenters, earning the nickname “Bloody Mary.”
- Mary died in 1558, and was followed by Elizabeth, the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn.
AHC Notes
- English Reformation — The religious and political changes that took place in England during the 16th Century, when the Church of England separated from the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. It was driven by both religious and political motives, including King Henry VIII’s desire for the annulment of his marriage and the influence of Protestant ideas. The English Reformation resulted in the establishment of the Church of England.
- Act of Supremacy (1534) — An act of Parliament that declared “…the king…his heirs, and successors…shall be…the only supreme head in earth of the Church of England.” This effectively made King Henry VIII the head of the church, breaking away from Pope Clement VII and the Roman Catholic Church.
- Church of England — The Church of England was established during the English Reformation when King Henry VII broke with Rome over political and personal disputes. Guided by figures like Thomas Cranmer, it developed its own theology and governance while retaining some Catholic traditions. Reforms continued under Edward VI, were reversed by Mary I, and then reestablished by Elizabeth I through the Elizabeth Settlement. Over time, it faced internal conflicts between traditionalists, Puritans, and reformers, but remained the dominant religious institution in England.
Queen Elizabeth I was not a religious zealot, but she valued stability and sought to end religious disputes in England. Within a year, England returned to Protestantism, advancing the English Reformation. In 1584, Parliament amended the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity. Together, they are known as the “Elizabethan Settlement,” which established her vision of Protestantism for the Church of England.
- The Act of Supremacy of 1559 made her “Supreme Governor” of the church and mandated the use of the Book of Common Prayer.
- The Anglican Church retained some Catholic elements, such as the governing structure of bishops, and church services were more ritualistic than either Lutheranism or the Reformed Movement.
Elizabeth expected her subjects to follow the Church of England, at least in name. Because of this, Catholics and Puritans who openly refused faced persecution.
AHC Notes
- Act of Supremacy (1559) — Elizabeth I was defined as the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, instead of the Supreme Head, as Henry VIII had been. The change was made because some members of Parliament did not feel a woman should be recognized as head of the church, but the title of governor was acceptable. The Act abolished Papal authority over England.
- Act of Uniformity (1559) — The Act of Uniformity laid the foundation for the Elizabethan Church. It restored the 1552 version of the Book of Common Prayer and allowed for two versions of communion, one Catholic and one Protestant.
Radical Reformers (Radicals)
The Radical Reformation refers to the emergence of various groups that shared little in common, except for their rejection of the Roman Catholic Church, rejection of infant baptism, and adherence to the scripture. The Anabaptists were one of the groups that emerged from the Radical Reformation.
- Most Radicals believed the world would soon come to an end.
- They sought to restore practices of the earliest Christian churches.
- These practices included pooling supplies and provisions together for their communities.
- Groups of Radicals were typically small and avoided expanding into urban areas.
One of the most significant differences between the Radicals and other Reform Movements was over who had the ability to interpret scripture.
- Lutherans and the Reformed Churches believed that scripture needed to be interpreted by trained theological experts, and untrained laypeople could not fully understand scripture on their own.
- Radicals argued that anyone could read and understand the Bible, and some groups taught that believers could receive direct inspiration from the Holy Spirit. This belief in the individual’s ability to interpret scripture contributed to the diversity and growth of various groups.
Radical Reform leaders included Conrad Grebel, Hans Hut, Thomas Müntzer, and Jan Matthys.
- Radicals distrusted political and religious leaders.
- They often recruited members from the lower socioeconomic classes.
- Their new theological ideas challenged established teachings.
- They rejected political authority.
- Their perceived connection to the German Peasants’ War increased opposition to them.
- Both Catholic and Protestant authorities persecuted radicals.
- Radical communities were found in Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands.
AHC Notes
- Magisterial Reformers — The Lutherans, Reformers, and Anglicans are referred to as “Magisterial Reformers,” due to the structure of their churches and the training of their clergymen.
- Conrad Grebel (c. 1498–1526) — Grebel was an associate of Ulrich Zwingli. However, disagreements over the practice of Mass and infant baptism led Grebel to break away. An Anabaptist, Grebel delivered sermons and baptized adults in present-day Germany, which led to his arrest in 1525. He escaped in 1526, but died soon after.
- Thomas Müntzer (c. 1489–1525) — Müntzer was a German theologian and minister. As early as 1514, he started questioning the teachings of the Church. Müntzer initially allied with Martin Luther for some time, but eventually moved away from him. During the German Peasants’ War, Müntzer led militia forces. He was captured, tortured, and executed.
- Hans Hut (c. 1490–1527) — Hut was an early Anabaptist and follower of Thomas Müntzer. Hut fought in the German Peasants’ War and survived the conflict. In 1527, Hut participated in a meeting of Anabaptist leaders in Augsburg. During the meeting, the town council had the participants arrested. Hut was imprisoned, tortured, and eventually died. Hut wrote the hymn “O Thou Almighty Lord and God,” which is still found in the hymnal used by Amish congregations in North America.
- Jan Matthys (c. 1500–1534) — Matthys was an Anabaptist who was involved in the Münster Rebellion (1534–1535). The Anabaptists attempted to establish a communal government in the German city of Münster, which was under the control of the Holy Roman Empire. The Anabaptists were successful at first, but opposition forces, led by the city’s Catholic bishop, Franz von Waldeck, laid siege to the city in 1535. Matthys was killed during the siege, and the Anabaptists were eventually defeated. The leaders were tortured and executed.
Effects of the Protestant Reformation
By 1560, most of Europe had broken away from the Roman Catholic Church.
- Protestant regions included England, Scotland, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, many cities of the Holy Roman Empire, parts of France, and parts of eastern Europe.
- Even heavily Catholic areas such as France, Spain, and Italy also experienced religious change.
Some of the major reforms implemented by the Protestant Reformation were:
- The veneration (profound respect) of Mary and the saints was abolished or limited.
- The doctrine of purgatory (a state or place of suffering) was rejected.
- Compulsory fasting was reduced or eliminated.
- Clerical celibacy was abolished in many areas.
- The number of sacraments (religious ceremonies) was reduced from seven to two or three.
- The Catholic administrative system, comprising priests and bishops, was abolished in many places.
Over time, Protestant churches became more formalized and shifted from challenging the old authority of the Roman Catholic Church to establishing and defending their own authority.
The Roman Catholic Church responded with the Counter-Reformation, also known as the “Catholic Revival,” which aimed to reform the Church and counter the Protestant Movements. It was driven by the Council of Trent (1545–1563), which issued proclamations on Catholic doctrine and teachings, while condemning Protestant theology.
European Wars of Religion
Following the start of the Reformation, Catholic and Protestant kingdoms fought for control of the European continent in a series of wars that took place in the 16th and 17th Centuries. The German Peasants’ War is considered by most to be the first of these wars.
In the War of the Schmalkaldic League (1546–1547), Protestant German princes fought the Holy Roman Empire. The conflict ended with the Peace of Augsburg (1555).
The Cologne War (1583–1588) was fought between Catholics and Protestants in the Electorate of Cologne, after the Prince of Cologne, Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, converted to Protestantism and refused to resign. The Catholics won this war and regained control of Cologne.
The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) started after King Henry II died in 1559, leading to a succession crisis, because his heir, Francis II, was only 15 years old. A government was set up to aid Francis, but he died the following year, and Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants) fought for control of the nation. An estimated two to four million French died due to violence, disease, and famine. The wars ended with the Edict of Nantes (1598), which granted rights to the Huguenots.
The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648), one of the most destructive wars in history, started when King Ferdinand II of Bohemia tried to impose Catholicism on his subjects. What followed was a series of wars that engulfed Europe as Catholic nations, led by the Habsburg Monarchy, battled an anti-Catholic coalition led by Sweden and the Dutch Republic (Netherlands). France also engaged in fighting with the Habsburgs. Most battles were fought in present-day Germany and led to the death of 33-50% of German-speaking peoples. Overall, the death toll of the war is believed to be somewhere between five to eight million Europeans. The war ended with the Peace of Westphalia (1648).
AHC Notes
- Habsburg Monarchy — Also known as the House of Habsburg, it was one of the most powerful dynasties in the history of Europe and Western civilization. It ruled much of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain.
Influence on the Western Hemisphere
The Reformation significantly influenced European colonization of the Western Hemisphere, as Spain, France, England, and other European powers sought to spread their respective religions to the New World and convert the native peoples to Catholicism or Protestantism.
- Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Latin America were Catholic.
- French colonies in North America were Catholic.
- English colonies in North America contained various Protestant churches.
The Wars of Religion also led Europeans to seek refuge in the New World, as many Protestants and Radicals fled in the wake of the devastation and persecution that ravaged their homelands.
AP US History Alignment
The Protestant Reformation is part of the following units, topics, and chapters in the AP US History curriculum:
Unit 1: 1491–1607
Unit 2: 1607–1754
- 2.2 — European Colonization
- 2.3 — The Regions of British Colonies
- 2.5 — Interactions Between American Indians and Europeans
- 2.7 — Colonial Society and Culture
Unit 3: 1754–1800
- 3.6 — The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals
- 3.8 — The Constitutional Convention and Debates over Ratification
