The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism

The War of 1812 and the Era of Good Feelings

The Presidencies of James Madison and James Monroe continued the Age of Jefferson and the hold of the Democratic-Republican Party on the government.

When Madison took office, he was challenged by disputes with Great Britain and France. In 1812, the United States decided to declare war on Britain. The decision was driven by disagreements over trading rights, impressment of American sailors, and British encouragement of Native American Indians on the Western Frontier. The War of 1812 saw significant battles and political divisions, ending with the Treaty of Ghent (1814), which restored pre-war boundaries and addressed future territorial disputes.

However, the war ended on a high note with the American victory at the Battle of New Orleans. This ushered in a new age of nationalism, known as the Era of Good Feelings. Despite this, Federalists who had opposed the war held the Hartford Convention to discuss their grievances with the Federal Government over the war. The convention suggested a series of amendments to the Constitution, but the rise of nationalists cast the Federalists in a poor light and signaled the beginning of the end of their political party.

As the nation expanded westward and the economy grew, Kentucky Congressman Henry Clay developed a three-part plan to create a nationwide economic system that included improvements to infrastructure, revenue generation through protective tariffs, and a strong national bank. As part of this, Congress approved its first protective tariff, the Tariff of 1818.

In 1816, James Monroe was elected President and went on a Goodwill Tour of the nation. After visiting Boston, a newspaper coined the phrase “Era of Good Feelings.”

A year later, the Rush-Bagot Treaty (1817) saw the United States and Great Britain agree to limit their naval forces on the Great Lakes. This treaty was the start of improved relations and cooperation between the two nations and set the stage for future agreements, including the Convention of 1818, which further clarified borders and rights.

Meanwhile, the Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice John Marshall, continued to define the authority of the Federal Government in cases like McCulloch v. Maryland (1819).

As the end of Monroe’s first term came to an end, the United States was hit by the Financial Panic of 1819. In the western territories, this sowed seeds of distrust in the government and laid the foundation for the type of “common man” democracy that was popular during the Presidency of Andrew Jackson.

The “good feelings” disappeared further when the sectional conflict over the expansion of slavery into the western territories rose to the forefront. In 1819, Missouri applied for statehood — as a Slave State. Ultimately, Congress agreed to the Missouri Compromise (1820) that allowed Missouri into the Union as a Slave State and Maine as a Free State. This maintained the balance in the Senate between Free States and Slave States.

In 1821, the United States finalized the acquisition of Florida with the Adams-Onís Treaty, which resulted in Spain ceding Florida to the U.S. and defining territorial boundaries.

Two years later, President Monroe announced the “Monroe Doctrine,” declaring the American continents were no longer open to European colonization and that interference by European powers in the Western Hemisphere would be viewed as a threat to the United States. The Doctrine emphasized separate spheres of influence for the Americas and Europe and laid the groundwork for future U.S. expansion and intervention in Latin America.

Meanwhile, a new breed of Frontiersmen — known as Mountain Men — made their way west, following in the footsteps of Lewis and Clark and Robert Stuart, who blazed the Oregon Trail in 1812–1813. These men, including William Henry Ashley, Thomas Fitzpatrick, Jim Bridger, and James Beckwourth, explored the frontier and helped establish the Western Fur Trade. This lucrative business also gave rise to America’s wealthiest man and first monopolist — John Jacob Astor.

As the Era of Good Feelings came to an end, the Democratic-Republican Party started to fracture due to sectional politics. This helped set the stage for the next 30 years of American politics, which included the rise of national political conventions, mass participation in elections, and intense political campaigning.

On to Canada over Land and Lakes

Challenges and Strategies of the War of 1812

• As war with Britain loomed, the United States Army was ill-trained, ill-disciplined, and scattered.
• It was supplemented by poorly trained militia, who were noted for quick retreats.
• Some ranking generals were elderly veterans from the American Revolutionary War who lacked vision and rested on their laurels.
• The initial offensive strategy against Canada was poorly designed.
• American forces neglected to target Montreal, the center of population and transportation in Canada.
• Americans tried a three-pronged invasion of Canada in 1812.
• Invasion forces from Detroit, Niagara, and Lake Champlain were beaten back after crossing the Canadian border.

British and Canadian Advantage in the War of 1812

• British and Canadians displayed energy from the beginning, led by British General Isaac Brock.
• They captured Fort Michilimackinac early in the war.
• Fort Michilimackinac commanded the upper Great Lakes and Indian-inhabited areas to the south and west.
• American efforts were hindered by “General Mud’’ and “General Confusion.’’

American Naval Successes in 1813

• American land invasions of Canada failed again in 1813.
• Americans found success on water and the American Navy outperformed the Army.
• American ships were more skillfully handled than British ships, had better gunners, and the crews were not forced to serve by Press Gangs.
• American frigates, notably the Constitution (“Old Ironsides”), had thicker sides and heavier firepower.
• American vessels had larger crews, and one of every six sailors was a free black man.

AHC Note — Led by Isaac Hull, Stephen Decatur, and William Bainbridge. The USS Constitution defeated the HMS Guerriere (August 19) and HMS Java (December 29). The USS United States also captured the HMS Macedonian (October 15). The naval victories also helped disrupt British shipping.

Control of the Great Lakes and Perry’s Victory

• Control of the Great Lakes was vital.
• American naval officer Oliver Hazard Perry built a fleet of ships on Lake Erie.
• Fleet manned by inexperienced seamen.
• Perry captured a British fleet in a furious engagement on Lake Erie.
• Perry reported, “We have met the enemy and they are ours.”
• Perry’s victory and slogan revitalized the American cause.
• British forces withdrew from Detroit and Fort Malden.
• General William Henry Harrison’s army overtook and defeated the retreating British at the Battle of the Thames in October 1813.

AHC Note — On September 10, American naval forces under the command of Master Commandant Oliver Hazard Perry won the Battle of Lake Erie. The decisive victory gave the United States control of the Great Lakes for the remainder of the war.

American Defense Against British Invasion in Late 1814

• By late 1814, Americans were defending their soil against invading British forces.
• Britain had been distracted by the conflict in Europe with Napoleon, but it ended in mid-1814.
• Napoleon was exiled to the Mediterranean isle of Elba.
• The United States faced the British alone after provoking the war.
• Thousands of veteran British Redcoats poured into Canada from Europe.

AHC Note — In 1814, a group of young American military leaders rose to prominence, including Andrew Jackson, Winfield Scott, Jacob Brown, George Izard, and Edmund Pendleton Gaines.

The Battle of Lake Champlain and Its Consequences

• In 1814, the British assembled 10,000 troops for an invasion of New York.
• The invasion route was along the same route that had been used in the American Revolutionary War by British forces during the Saratoga Campaign.
• The lack of roads forced the British to transport supplies over the Lake Champlain waterway.
• A weaker American fleet, commanded by 30-year-old Thomas Macdonough, challenged the British.
• The battle near Plattsburgh on September 11, 1814, was fiercely fought on “floating slaughterhouses.”
• The American flagship was in grave trouble but Macdonough turned his ship using cables to present a fresh broadside.
• Macdonough’s maneuver secured an unexpected victory, forcing the British to retreat.
• Macdonough saved upper New York from conquest.
• The victory prevented further disaffection in New England over the war and averted the potential dissolution of the Union.

AHC Note — The British sent an invasion force out of Canada, targeting New York, but it was defeated by American land and naval forces at the Battle of Plattsburgh (September 11) and the Battle of Lake Champlain (September 11). The British commander, General George Prévost, retreated to Canada.

Washington Burned and New Orleans Defended

Burning of Washington, D.C.

• In August 1814, a second British force of about 4,000 landed in the Chesapeake Bay.
• The British rapidly advanced on Washington, dispersing 6,000 militia at Bladensburg — “the Bladensburg Races”.
• They entered Washington D.C. and set fire to public buildings, including the Capitol and the White House.

AHC Note — Following the arrival of reinforcements from Europe, the British launched a combined army and naval campaign in the Chesapeake Bay area. In August, American forces were routed at the Battle of Bladensburg (August 24). The victory allowed the British to march into Washington D.C., where they occupied the city and burned the Capitol and White House

The Battle of Baltimore

• Despite the Burning of Washington, Americans held firm at Baltimore.
• The British fleet bombarded Fort McHenry but failed to capture Baltimore.
• Francis Scott Key, detained on a British ship, wrote “The Star-Spangled Banner,” which was inspired by the defense of Fort McHenry.
• The song, set to an English tavern tune, quickly became popular.

AHC Note — The British attacked on September 12 but failed to break the American lines. They turned to a bombardment of Fort McHenry that lasted for approximately 25 hours. Unable to destroy the fort, British forces withdrew. The exploding shells in the night sky over Fort McHenry inspired eyewitness Francis Scott Key to write the poem “Defence of Fort M’Henry,” which became the “Star Spangled Banner.”

Jackson Prepares New Orleans

• A third British offensive in 1814 aimed at New Orleans, threatening the entire Mississippi Valley.
• Andrew Jackson, recently victorious at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, was placed in command of American forces.
• Jackson’s force comprised 7,000 sailors, regulars, pirates, Frenchmen, and militia from Louisiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee.
• Included two Louisiana regiments of free black volunteers, numbering about 400 men.
• The Americans constructed entrenchments and prepared for the British assault.

The Battle of New Orleans

• A British force of 8,000 battle-seasoned veterans attacked on January 8, 1815.
• They launched a frontal assault on entrenched American riflemen and cannoneers.
• The British suffered the most devastating defeat of the war, suffering over 2,000 killed and wounded in half an hour.
• American casualties numbered around 70.
• The victory was a significant triumph for Andrew Jackson, his men, and the United States.

AHC Note — By November 1814, a British force was located at Pensacola, Florida, with the approval of the Spanish Governor. Many Creek refugees sought protection at Pensacola and General Jackson decided to pursue them. Jackson attacked Pensacola on November 7. By November 9, the British evacuated the city, giving Jackson another victory in the war. From Pensacola, Jackson moved to Mobile, where he expected to find the British. However, when he arrived he learned the British were threatening New Orleans. By early January 1815, Jackson and his army were entrenched at New Orleans. British forces attacked on January 8 and were soundly defeated by Jackson.

National Reaction to the Battle of New Orleans

• News of the victory struck the country “like a clap of thunder.”
• Andrew Jackson became a national hero.
• Poets and politicians praised the defenders of New Orleans.
• A peace treaty had been signed at Ghent, Belgium, two weeks before the battle.
• The United States fought for honor as much as for material gain.
• The Battle of New Orleans restored American honor.
• The victory unleashed a wave of nationalism and self-confidence.

British Response

• The British Navy imposed a naval blockade along America’s coast.
• British raiding parties landed almost at will.
• The American economy was severely crippled.
• Customs revenues were cut off, nearly bankrupting the U.S. Treasury.

The Treaty of Ghent

Tsar Alexander I’s Mediation Proposal and the Treaty of Ghent

• Tsar Alexander I of Russia proposed mediation in 1812 due to the threat from Napoleon’s Army.
• Alexander did not want his British ally to waste its strength in America.
• This proposal led to peace negotiations in the Belgian city of Ghent in 1814.
• Five American peacemakers attended the negotiations.
• The group was led by John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams.

British Demands and Compromises in Peace Negotiations

• British envoys were confident after military successes.
• They demanded a neutralized Indian buffer state in the Great Lakes Region, control of the Great Lakes, and a substantial part of Maine.
• Americans rejected these terms, leading to a stalemate in talks.
• Increasing war-weariness in Britain made London more willing to compromise.
• Britain focused on redrafting Napoleon’s map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna.
• Britain, wary of France, decided to accept compromises and end hostilities.

The Treaty of Ghent and Its Aftermath

• The Treaty of Ghent was signed on Christmas Eve in 1814.
• The treaty was essentially an armistice and both sides agreed to stop fighting and restore conquered territory.
• There was no mention of the American grievances that caused the war.
• These Omissions are cited as evidence of the insincerity of the War Hawks.
• Proof that Americans had not defeated the British.
• Treaty negotiations ended in a virtual draw.
• Americans boasted “Not One Inch of Territory Ceded or Lost.”

Federalist Grievances and the Hartford Convention

New England’s Defiance During the War

• New England prospered during the conflict due to illicit trade with Canada.
• The absence of a British blockade until 1814 contributed to New England’s prosperity.
• Federalists’ opposition to the war remained strong and New England extremists became more vocal as the war continued.
• A small minority proposed secession from the Union or a separate peace with Britain.
• Rumors of “Blue Light” Federalists surfaced, who allegedly used lanterns to alert British cruisers to the presence of American ships.

The Hartford Convention

• The Hartford Convention was the most notable manifestation of Federalist discontent.
• Massachusetts called for the convention in late 1814, amid fears that New Orleans would be captured.
• Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island sent full delegations.
• New Hampshire and Vermont sent partial representation.
• A total of 26 delegates attended.
• The convention met in complete secrecy from December 15, 1814, to January 5, 1815.
• The purpose was to discuss grievances and seek redress for their wrongs.

Outcomes and Proposals of the Hartford Convention

• The Hartford Convention was less radical than alarmists feared.
• A minority of delegates spoke of secession.
• The final report was moderate but reflected Federalist fears of New England’s subservience to the agrarian South and West
• The report:
  • Demanded financial assistance from Washington for lost trade
  • Proposed Constitutional Amendments requiring a two-thirds vote in Congress for embargoes, new states, or declarations of war.
  • Sought to abolish the three-fifths clause in the Constitution.
  • Proposed limiting Presidents to a single term.
  • Suggested prohibiting successive Presidents from the same state.
• The last clause targeted the Virginia Dynasty, as Virginians had been president for all but four years of the Republic’s 25-year existence.

Fallout of the Hartford Convention and Its Envoys

• Three special envoys from Massachusetts carried the Hartford Convention’s demands to Washington.
• They arrived as news broke about the victory at New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent.
• The nation celebrated the victory, making New England’s wartime complaints seem petty and treasonous.

AHC Note — Although the idea of secession was discussed, it was ultimately rejected. Moderates led the convention, proposing amendments to the U.S. Constitution to safeguard Northern interests, including restrictions on presidential terms and altering slave representation. The recommendations of the convention were compiled into a report. Prominent figures involved in the convention included George Cabot and Harrison Gray Otis, who were moderates. Otis, a prominent member of the Federalist Party, was a relative of James Otis Jr. and Mercy Otis Warren. When he was 10 years old, he witnessed British troops marching to Concord on April 19, 1775.

Decline of the Federalist Party

• The Hartford Convention was the beginning of the end of the Federalist Party.
• In 1816, the Federalists nominated their last presidential candidate.
• The candidate was easily defeated by James Monroe, another Virginian.
• Federalist doctrines of disunity continued to influence American politics.
• Until 1815, New England saw more talk of nullification and secession than any other region, including the South.
• The defiance of the Jeffersonian embargo and the war effort were significant acts of nullification before the Civil War.

AHC Note — The Federalist candidate for President in 1816 was Rufus King.

The Second War for American Independence

Impact of the War of 1812

• The War of 1812 resulted in about 6,000 American casualties.
• It was a small war compared to the European conflicts, especially Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia with 500,000 men in 1812.
• In contrast, the United States attempted to invade Canada with about 5,000 men.
• Despite its global insignificance, the war had significant consequences for the United States.
• The outcome earned new respect for America among many Britons.
• British Navy Lieutenant Michael Scott expressed disdain for Americans but acknowledged their bravery, determination, and worthiness as adversaries.

America’s Stance and International Respect Post-War

• The Republic demonstrated its willingness to resist perceived grievous wrongs with military force.
• Other nations developed a new respect for America’s fighting capabilities.
• Naval officers like Perry and Macdonough were seen as effective negotiators.
• Their military successes spoke volumes in diplomatic terms.
• American emissaries abroad were treated with more respect.
• The conflict is often referred to as the “Second War for American Independence.”

Nation Building and Consequences of the War of 1812

• The War of 1812 united the nation through armed conflict.
• Sectionalism, associated with New England Federalists, was discredited.
• The Federalist Party became the most conspicuous casualty of the war.
• War heroes like Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison emerged, both later becoming Presidents.
• Abandoned by the British, the Indians were forced into treaties, relinquishing vast lands north of the Ohio River.
• The war stimulated industries, making America less dependent on European workshops.

Canadian Nationalism and the Rush-Bagot Agreement

• Canadian patriotism and nationalism were strengthened by the War of 1812.
• Many Canadians felt betrayed by the Treaty of Ghent and were unhappy over the failure to secure an Indian buffer state or control of the Great Lakes.
• Canadians expected future American invasions.
• A floating arms race between the Americans and the British started on the Great Lakes.
• The Rush-Bagot Agreement of 1817 between Britain and the United States limited naval armament on the Great Lakes.
• Improved relations led to the removal of the last border fortifications in the 1870s.
• This resulted in the United States and Canada sharing the world’s longest unfortified boundary — more than 5,500 miles long.

AHC Note — The Rush-Bagot Agreement established the borders between the two countries in the Great Lakes region and limited the number of armed vessels that each country could maintain on the lakes. The agreement, which was signed by U.S. Secretary of State James Monroe and British diplomat Charles Bagot, was a significant step towards reducing tensions between the two countries and establishing peaceful relations.

Post-Waterloo European Conservatism and American Focus

• Europe finally entered a period of peace after Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo in 1815.
• Deposed monarchs returned to their thrones.
• The American people were largely unaffected by these European changes.
• Americans turned their focus toward the Western Frontier and expanding the nation’s territory and economy.

Nascent Nationalism

• The War of 1812 led to a heightened sense of nationalism.
• America emerged as a unified nation despite not fighting the war as one.

Emergence of American Literature

• A distinctively national literature was born.
• Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper gained international recognition in the 1820s.
• These writers were the first to use American scenes and themes.
• School textbooks, previously British, were now written by Americans for Americans.
• The North American Review, a highly intellectual magazine, started publication in 1815.
• American painters increasingly celebrated native landscapes on their canvases.

Nationalistic Spirit in Post-War America

• A renewed nationalistic spirit was evident in various areas.
• Nation-consciousness influenced finance with the revival of the Bank of the United States in 1816.
• A new and more handsome national capital began to rise from the ashes of Washington.
• The army was expanded to 10,000 men.
• The navy gained further glory in 1815 by defeating the Barbary Pirates.
• Naval hero Stephen Decatur became prominent for his role in the War of 1812 and the Barbary Coast expeditions.
• Decatur captured the nationalist mood with his famous toast: “Our country! In her intercourse with foreign nations may she always be in the right; but our country, right or wrong!”

The American System

Rise of American Manufacturing

• Nationalism manifested in the pride Americans took in their growing factories.
• Factories expanded significantly due to self-imposed embargoes before the war and the blockade during the war.
• After hostilities ended, British competitors sought to regain their market share.
• British started dumping goods in the U.S., often below cost, to undermine American factories.
• American industries called for protection against British competition.
• Many Americans viewed this as an attempt by the British to crush American factories after failing to defeat American forces on the battlefield.

The Protectionist Tariff of 1816

• Congress enacted the Tariff of 1816.
• It was the first American tariff primarily aimed at protecting American manufacturing, instead of raising revenue.
• Imposed rates of roughly 20 to 25 percent on the value of dutiable imports.
• Rates were not high enough to offer complete protection but marked a bold beginning.
• The Tariff of 1816 started a series of protective tariffs that created tension between the North and South.

AHC Note — The Tariff of 1816 added a 25% tax on all wool and cotton goods that were imported into the United States from foreign nations. Unfortunately, the Tariff of 1816 was viewed as detrimental to the South and may have helped suppress the development of manufacturing in those states. The Tariff of 1816 started the “Thirty Year Tariff War,” which culminated in the Nullification Crisis of 1832–1833. During the Crisis, South Carolina threatened to secede from the Union. Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun brokered a compromise with the Tariff of 1833 that averted the potential start of a Civil War.

Henry Clay’s American System

• Henry Clay devised the American System to create a national economy.
• The American System had three main parts:
  • A strong banking system to provide easy and abundant credit.
  • A protective tariff to support eastern manufacturing.
  • A network of roads and canals, especially in the Ohio Valley, funded by tariff revenues.
• These new transportation routes would facilitate the flow of foodstuffs and raw materials from the South and West to the North and East.
• In return, manufactured goods would flow back, economically and politically uniting the country.
• Clay’s advocacy for better transportation resonated with the public.
• The failed invasions of Canada highlighted the need for better roads.
• Public demand for improved transportation grew, but federal support for intrastate improvements was controversial.
• New England opposed federally constructed roads and canals, fearing population drain and competition from new states.

AHC Note — The American System was based on the economic policies of Alexander Hamilton.

The So-Called Era of Good Feelings

James Monroe Continues the Virginia Dynasty

• James Monroe was nominated for the presidency by the Democratic-Republicans in the Presidential Election of 1816.
• His nomination and subsequent victory continued the Virginia Dynasty of Washington, Jefferson, and Madison.

Struggles for Federal Funding for Infrastructure

• The push for better transportation, especially in the road-poor West, was a significant aspect of the nationalism inspired by the War of 1812.
• In 1817, Congress voted to distribute $1.5 million to the states for internal improvements.
• President Madison vetoed this measure as unconstitutional.
• States were forced to pursue their own construction programs, such as the Erie Canal, completed by New York in 1825.

The Last Federalist and One Party Rule

• The Federalist Party ran a candidate for the last time, who was defeated by 183 electoral votes to 34.
• The Federalist Party was in its final decline, leading to the dominance of the Democratic-Republican Party and one-party rule.

AHC Note — The American political system under the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party is known as the First Party System.

James Monroe and the Era of Good Feelings

• The Presidency of James Monroe marked the merging of two generations: the Founding Fathers and the Era of Good Feelings.
• Monroe was the last President to wear an old-style cocked hat.
• He was considered the least distinguished in intellect and personal force among the first eight presidents.
• Monroe was an experienced, levelheaded executive, adept at interpreting popular sentiments.
• The times required sober administration rather than dashing heroics.
• Monroe undertook a goodwill tour in 1817 to inspect military defenses, which bolstered emerging nationalism.
• He traveled north into New England and west to Detroit and visited Niagara Falls.
• Despite Federalist dominance in New England, Monroe received a warm welcome.

AHC Note — Following Monroe’s visit to Boston, the phrase “Era of Good Feelings” was coined by Benjamin Russell, and first appeared in the Federalist newspaper, Columbian Sentinel, on July 12, 1817.

The Misnomer of the Era of Good Feelings

• The “Era of Good Feelings” was a misnomer, despite tranquility and prosperity in Monroe’s early years.
• The period faced significant issues — tariff disputes, banking controversies, internal improvements, and public land sales.
• Sectionalism was growing, and the conflict over slavery was starting to emerge.

The Panic of 1819 and the Curse of Hard Times

During the Era of Good Feelings, the American economy experienced a significant boom. However, land speculation was rampant, fueled by the expansion of banking and the creation of the Second Bank of the United States. Cotton prices soared, leading to increased production and economic growth. Unfortunately, the economic boom created challenges. The Panic of 1819 created an economic recession that lasted into the 1820s, causing a decline in economic prosperity.

The Panic of 1819 and Its Consequences

• The Panic of 1819 marked the end of the “good feelings” in Monroe’s administration.
• The economic panic brought deflation, depression, bankruptcies, bank failures, and unemployment.
• Soup kitchens and overcrowded debtors’ prisons, known as “pesthouses,” became common.
• It was the first national financial panic since President Washington took office.
• The primary factor contributing to the panic was over speculation in frontier lands.
• The Bank of the United States, particularly through its western branches, was deeply involved in land speculation.

Consequences of the Panic of 1819

• The financial paralysis from the Panic of 1819 lasted several years and undermined national enthusiasm.
• The West was particularly hard hit by the economic downturn.
• The Bank of the United States forced speculative “Wildcat Banks” in the West to close and also foreclosed on many farms.
• These actions, while legal, were politically unwise and turned Western debtors against the Bank, seeing it as a financial devil.
• The Panic of 1819 had significant political and social repercussions.
• It planted the seeds of Jacksonian Democracy in the lower classes, who were the most affected by the crisis.
• The process of imprisoning debtors sometimes led to extreme cases where mothers were separated from their infants for owing small amounts of money.
• Agitation against imprisonment for debt led to remedial legislation in many states.

Growing Pains of the West

Frontier States

• Nine frontier states joined the original 13 between 1791 and 1819.
• States were admitted alternately as Free States or Slave States to preserve the sectional balance.

Westward Expansion Resumes

• The generations-old westward movement resumed.
• The desire to acquire cheap land was known as “Ohio Fever.”
• There was an increase in European immigrants after the war.
• The older tobacco states suffered from land exhaustion due to cultivation practices.
• Speculators gladly accepted small down payments, which they used to buy more land.

Developments Stimulating Western Expansion

• Economic distress during the embargo years pushed people westward.
• The defeat of the Northwest Indian Confederacy and Southern tribes by William Henry Harrison and Andrew Jackson opened new land.
• The building of highways improved access to the Ohio Valley.
• Construction of Cumberland Road started in 1811. It ran from western Maryland to Illinois.
• The first steamboat on western waters in 1811 introduced a new era of upstream navigation.

Challenges and Demands of the West

• The West was weak in population and influence despite the influx of settlers.
• It allied with other sections to strengthen its political voice.
• The Land Act of 1820 allowed the purchase of 80 acres at $1.25 per acre in cash.
• Westerners sought cheap transportation, and new roads eventually happened.
• They also demanded cheap money issued by Wildcat Banks and fought the Bank of the United States.

Slavery and the Sectional Balance

Sectional Tensions and the Missouri Crisis

• The conflict between the North and South over slavery in the West intensified in 1819.
• Missouri applied for admission as a Slave State in 1819.
• Missouri had a sufficient population for statehood.
• The House of Representatives passed the Tallmadge Amendment.
• The amendment prohibited further importation of slaves into Missouri and provided for the Gradual Emancipation of children born to slave parents.
• Slave-holding Southerners reacted with anger.
• Depression-cursed pioneers and many northerners, including Federalists, opposed the amendment.
• Northerners saw the issue as a way to challenge the Virginia Dynasty.

Southern Opposition to the Tallmadge Amendment

• Southerners saw the Tallmadge Amendment as a threat to sectional balance.
• The Amendment was eventually defeated in the Senate.
• When the Constitution was adopted in 1788, the North and South were equal in wealth and population.
• Over time, the North became wealthier and more densely populated.
• This demographic shift gave the North a majority in the House of Representatives.
• In the Senate, each state had two votes, maintaining the balance between Free States and Slate States.
• With 11 free states and 11 slave states, Southerners could block Northern efforts to restrict slavery.
• Southerners aimed to preserve their ability to veto anti-slavery legislation.

Concerns Over the Future of Slavery

• Southerners were deeply concerned about the future of the slave system.
• Missouri was the first state west of the Mississippi River from the Louisiana Purchase.
• Southerners were worried that Gradual Emancipation in Missouri could set a precedent for the entire territory.
• There was fear that Congress might try to abolish slavery in older Southern States.
• The debates reopened wounds from the Constitutional Convention of 1787.
• While the primary issue was political and economic balance, moral questions about slavery emerged.
• A growing group of antislavery agitators in the North opposed the spread of slavery into new territories.
• These agitators were determined to prevent the expansion of human bondage.

The Uneasy Missouri Compromise

The Missouri Compromise of 1820

• The deadlock in Washington was resolved in 1820 through compromise.
• Henry Clay of Kentucky played a leading role as a conciliator.
• Congress agreed to admit Missouri as a Slave State, despite Abolitionist opposition.
• Maine, previously part of Massachusetts, was admitted as a Free State.
• The balance between North and South was maintained at 12 states each for 15 years.
• Future slavery was prohibited in the remainder of the Louisiana Purchase north of the 36° 30′ line, the southern boundary of Missouri.

Political Adjustments of the Missouri Compromise

• The Missouri Compromise was fairly evenhanded, though extremists on both sides denounced it as a “dirty bargain.”
• Both North and South made concessions and gained benefits.
• The South secured Missouri as an unrestricted Slave State.
• The North secured the concession that Congress could forbid slavery in the remaining territories.
• The area north of the 36° 30′ line, except Missouri, was permanently closed to slavery, pleasing many northerners.
• The restriction on future slavery in northern territories was not highly offensive to slaveowners due to the unsuitability of the land for slave labor.
• Despite this, a majority of Southern congressmen voted against the compromise.

Foreboding Views on the Missouri Question

• Thomas Jefferson expressed deep concern over the compromise.
• Jefferson described it as the most threatening issue to the Union.
• He called it a “firebell in the night,” that awakened him with terror.
• Jefferson likened slavery to having “a wolf by the ears,” unable to hold it back or safely release it.
• John Quincy Adams viewed the compromise as a prelude to a larger conflict.

The Aftermath of the Missouri Compromise

• Neither North nor South was acutely displeased, but neither was completely happy with the Missouri Compromise.
• The Missouri Compromise lasted 34 years.
• It preserved the shaky union of the states but did not resolve the slavery dispute.
• The debate over slavery foreshadowed the future breakup of the Union.
• The morality of the South’s “peculiar institution” remained a contentious issue.
• Thomas Jefferson predicted the issue would eventually “burst on us as a tornado.”

Presidential Election of 1820

• The Missouri Compromise and the Panic of 1819 dampened the Era of Good Feelings.
• President Monroe remained popular despite these events.
• The Federalist opposition was weak during this period.
• In the Presidential Election of 1820, Monroe received every Electoral Vote but one.
• This near-unanimity was an honor previously reserved for George Washington.
• Monroe was the only President in American history to be reelected after a term that saw a major financial panic.

John Marshall and Judicial Nationalism

Nationalism and the Supreme Court

• The Supreme Court reinforced Nationalism
• Chief Justice John Marshall dominated the Court, enhancing federal power over states.

McCulloch v. Maryland

• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) was a case where the Court bolstered federal authority.
• Maryland tried to destroy a branch of the Bank of the United States by taxing its notes.
• The Supreme Court declared the bank was constitutional based on the Hamiltonian doctrine of implied powers.
• Marshall denied Maryland’s ability to tax the bank, affirming “that the power to tax involves the power to destroy” and “that a power to create implies a power to preserve.”
• The decision strengthened federal authority and curtailed state infringements.

Marshall’s Doctrine of Loose Construction

• The ruling in McCulloch v. Maryland provided a key part of “loose construction.”
• The Constitution, according to Marshall, derived from the consent of the people and allowed the government to act for their benefit.
• He argued that the Constitution was “intended to endure for ages to come” and should be adaptable to various crises.
• Marshall said, “Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the letter and spirit of the Constitution, are constitutional.”

Cohens v. Virginia

• Cohens v. Virginia ( 1821) provided Marshall another opportunity to defend federal power.
• The Cohens were found guilty by Virginia courts for illegally selling lottery tickets and appealed to the Supreme Court.
• Virginia “won” because the Cohens’ conviction was upheld.
• However, Virginia and all states effectively lost, as Marshall asserted the Supreme Court’s right to review State Supreme Court decisions involving federal powers.
• This decision alarmed States’ Rights proponents.

Gibbons v. Ogden

• The “steamboat case,” Gibbons v. Ogden (1824), led to another significant decision by Marshall.
• The case arose from New York’s attempt to grant a monopoly on waterborne commerce between New York and New Jersey to a private company.
• Marshall ruled that only Congress had the authority to control interstate commerce, as per the Constitution (Article I, Section VIII, paragraph 3).
• This decision curtailed States’ Rights and expanded the power of the Federal Government.
• Interstate commerce was freed from state-imposed monopolies.
• The ruling aligned with Hamiltonian principles of strong federal power.

Judicial Dikes Against Democratic Excesses

Marshall’s decisions bolstered judicial barriers against attacks on property rights.

Fletcher v. Peck

• Fletcher v. Peck (1810) arose from a bribery-induced Georgia legislature granting 35 million acres in the Yazoo River country to private speculators.
• The next legislature, responding to public outcry, canceled the transaction.
• The Supreme Court, under Marshall, ruled the legislative grant was a contract, and the Constitution forbids state laws impairing contracts (Article I, Section X, paragraph 1).
• This decision protected property rights against popular pressures.
• It also established the Supreme Court’s right to invalidate state laws conflicting with the Constitution.

Dartmouth College v. Woodward

• Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) upheld the principle of contract protection.
• Dartmouth College had a charter granted by King George III in 1769.
• The New Hampshire State Legislature tried to alter the charter.
• Dartmouth appealed the case, with Daniel Webster, serving as counsel.
• Webster’s eloquence, including his famous line, “It is, sir, as I have said, a small college. And yet there are those who love it,” became legendary.
• Marshall ruled the original charter must stand as it was a contract.
• The Constitution protected contracts against state encroachments.
• The decision safeguarded business enterprises from state government domination.
• It also created a precedent allowing chartered corporations to evade public control in later years.

Daniel Webster

• Daniel Webster frequently left his Senate seat to present his Federalistic and nationalistic philosophy to the Supreme Court.
• Webster believed Chief Justice John Marshall approved of his arguments.
• Webster and Marshall had a complementary relationship.
• Webster’s Senate speeches challenging States’ Rights and Nullification echoed his the same arguments he made before the Supreme Court.

Marshall’s Legacy

• Marshall’s nationalism continues to influence modern America.
• His decisions strengthened the Union and created a stable, uniform environment for business.
• Marshall checked the excesses of popularly elected state legislatures.
• In an era of expanding suffrage for white men and increasing popular control, Marshall shaped the Constitution along conservative, centralizing lines.
• Marshall allowed Hamiltonian principles to prevail despite the spirit of the new country.
• Despite this, some celebrated his death, due to his tendency to strengthen government at the expense of the people.

Sharing Oregon and Acquiring Florida

Nationalistic Foreign Policy Post-War of 1812

• Post-war nationalism also influenced foreign policy.
• President Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams shaped a new foreign policy.
• John Quincy Adams was the son of ex-president John Adams and rose above New England’s Federalist sectionalism.
• Adams is considered one of the great Secretaries of State.

The Treaty of 1818 with Britain

• The Monroe administration negotiated the Treaty of 1818 with Britain.
• It allowed Americans to share Newfoundland fisheries with Canadians.
• It fixed the northern limits of Louisiana at the 49th parallel from the Lake of the Woods (Minnesota) to the Rocky Mountains.
• It provided for a 10-year joint occupation of the Oregon Country.
• The treaty did not surrender the rights or claims of either America or Britain in Oregon.

AHC Note — The Treaty of 1818 established the border between the two countries in the Pacific Northwest and established the terms for joint occupancy of the Oregon Country. The treaty, which was signed by U.S. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and British diplomat Richard Rush, was a significant step towards resolving disputes between the two countries and establishing peaceful relations.

American Claims and Actions in Spanish Florida

• Many Americans believed Spanish Florida should become part of the United States.
• Americans claimed West Florida, where settlers had removed the Spanish flag in 1810.
• Congress ratified the claim in 1812.
• During the War of 1812, a small American army seized the Mobile region.
• The majority of Florida remained under Spanish rule.

AHC Note — In 1810, the West Florida Revolt took place in West Florida. American settlers in the region rebelled against Spanish rule and declared independence from Spain. President Madison did not recognize the Republic of West Florida, but he did make a case that West Florida — from the Mississippi to the Perdido rivers — was part of the Louisiana Purchase. As a result, the United States occupied West Florida in December 1810 and annexed the territory. The Mobile District, along the coast of present-day Alabama and Mississippi, remained under Spanish control until 1813, during the War of 1812. Congress annexed the territory on February 12, 1813.

Jackson’s Opportunity in Florida Amid South American Revolutions

• Revolutions in South America (Argentina in 1816, Venezuela in 1817, Chile in 1818) forced Spain to withdraw troops from Florida.
• General Andrew Jackson saw an opportunity in the undefended Florida swamplands.
• Jackson used the pretext that Seminole Indians and fugitive slaves were using Florida as a refuge.
• He secured a commission to enter Spanish territory, engage the Indians, and capture runaways.
• Jackson was instructed to respect all posts under the Spanish flag.

Jackson’s Campaign in Florida and the Florida Purchase Treaty

• In early 1818, Jackson crossed the Florida border.
• He hanged two Indian chiefs and executed two British subjects after hasty trials for assisting the Indians.
• Jackson seized St. Marks and Pensacola, the two most important Spanish posts, deposing the Spanish Governor.
• Jackson exceeded his instructions, causing alarm.
• President Monroe consulted his cabinet, which largely favored disavowing or disciplining Jackson.

Florida Purchase Treaty

• John Quincy Adams supported Jackson and demanded concessions from Spain.
• The Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819 resulted in Spain ceding Florida to the United States and giving up its claims to Oregon.
• In exchange, America abandoned claims to Texas, which was soon to be part of independent Mexico.
• The western boundary of Louisiana was clarified to run along the Rockies to the 42nd parallel, then west to the Pacific, dividing Oregon from Spanish holdings.

The Menace of Monarchy in America

European Reaction Against Democratic Tendencies

• After the Napoleonic Wars, European autocrats formed a monarchical protective association.
• Their goal was to restore pre-revolutionary order and suppress democratic tendencies inspired by the French Revolution.
• They aimed to make the world safe from democracy.
• These monarchs promptly suppressed rebellions in Italy (1821) and Spain (1823).
• Rumors suggested they were also considering intervention in Spanish America.
• Russia, Austria, Prussia, and France were believed to be planning to send fleets and armies to restore Spanish rule over its revolted colonies in the Americas.

American Alarm Over European Intervention

• Americans were alarmed by the potential European intervention in Latin America.
• They sympathized with democratic revolutions and supported Latin American republics rising from monarchic ruins.
• Fears arose that European intervention would harm the cause of republicanism.
• The security of the United States, and the stronghold of democracy, was threatened by the proximity of powerful and unfriendly European forces.

Russian Expansion and American Concerns

• Russian expansion southward from Alaska was a threat to North America.
• In 1821, the Russian Tsar issued a decree extending Russian jurisdiction over 100 miles of the open sea down to the line of 51°, covering most of present-day British Columbia.
• Russians had established trading posts nearly as far south as San Francisco Bay.
• Americans feared that Russia intended to cut the United States off from California, its potential window to the Pacific.

Britain’s Proposal for a Joint Declaration

• Great Britain, maintaining dominance at sea, started acting independently on the international stage.
• Britain was reluctant to join European powers in suppressing the liberties of Spanish-American revolutionists.
• These revolutionists opened their ports to outside trade, benefiting British and American shippers.
• In August 1823, British Foreign Secretary George Canning proposed a joint declaration with the United States.
• The declaration would renounce any interest in acquiring Latin American territory and warn European powers to stay out of Latin American affairs.
• The American minister, without instructions, sent the proposal to Washington.

Monroe and His Doctrine

The Monroe Doctrine is a cornerstone of America’s Foreign Policy that warned against European influence in the Western Hemisphere and has been modified to justify American involvement in the region. The Doctrine was extended by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904 with the “Roosevelt Corollary,” which justified U.S. intervention in the region as an international police power. The Monroe Doctrine continues to be a part of American Foreign Policy.

Secretary Adams’ Skepticism of British Proposal

• Secretary Adams was cautious about Britain’s proposal for a joint declaration.
• Adams questioned why Britain, with its powerful navy, needed America as an ally.
• He viewed such a union as undignified, likening it to a small American “cockboat” sailing “in the wake of the British Man-of-Wwar.”
• Adams suspected the British had ulterior motives.
• He believed Britain feared American expansion into Spanish territories, like Cuba, which could threaten British Caribbean possessions.
• By aligning with Britain, America would be morally obligated to uphold the territorial integrity of the New World, limiting its own expansion opportunities.

Adams’ Conclusion on the British Proposal

• Adams concluded that a self-denying alliance with Britain would hinder American expansion and was unnecessary.
• He correctly suspected that the European powers had no definite plans to invade the Americas.
• The British Navy, prioritizing open South American markets for British merchants, would prevent hostile fleets from approaching.
• Protected by the British Navy, America could safely issue a defiant, nationalistic statement to Europe.
• The difficulties in Europe provided an opportunity for American diplomatic success.

The Monroe Doctrine

• Monroe addressed his message primarily to Russia in the Northwest.
• He declared the Era of Colonization in the Americas was over, and no new acquisitions by Old World powers would be allowed.
• Existing colonies could remain, but no new territories could be seized.
• Monroe warned against foreign intervention, particularly concerned about Spanish-American republics.
• He instructed European monarchies to stay out of the Western Hemisphere.
• He ensured the United States would not intervene in the Greek war for independence against the Turks.

Monroe’s Doctrine Appraised

European Reaction to the Monroe Doctrine

• European monarchs were angered by the Monroe Doctrine.
• They resented the American experiment and were offended by Monroe’s policy.
• They saw a disparity between America’s bold claims and its limited military strength.
• Despite their anger, European powers found themselves unable to act.
• Any plans to invade the Americas would have been stopped by the British Navy.

AHC Note — The Monroe Doctrine was designed to separate the New World from the monarchies and regimes in Europe. Monroe warned the European nations against interfering in the affairs of the newly independent Latin American states or potential United States territories.

Immediate Impact of the Monroe Doctrine

• Monroe’s warning made little impact on the new republics in Latin America.
• It was clear the primary concern was American self-defense against future invasions.
• Few educated Latin Americans were aware of the message, recognizing the British Navy as their true protector.
• The Monroe Doctrine had limited contemporary significance.
• Americans applauded it but soon forgot it.
• President James K. Polk revived the Monroe Doctrine in 1845, and it became an important national principle by the middle of the 19th Century.
• Before the Monroe Doctrine, the Tsar of Russia had already decided to retreat.
• The Russo-American Treaty of 1824 set Russia’s southernmost limits at the line of 54° 40′, the present southern tip of the Alaska panhandle.

The Nature and Evolution of the Monroe Doctrine

• The Monroe Doctrine could be more accurately called the Self-Defense Doctrine.
• President Monroe was primarily concerned with the security of the United States, not Latin America.
• The United States has historically resisted allowing powerful foreign nations to establish a foothold near its strategic Caribbean interests.
• The strength of the Monroe Doctrine has always depended on America’s ability to enforce it.
• The Doctrine’s influence has fluctuated over time, reflecting the nation’s military power.

Characteristics and Legacy of the Monroe Doctrine

• The Monroe Doctrine has experienced a series of ups and downs throughout its history.
• It was never established as law, either domestically or internationally.
• It is a simple, personalized statement of President Monroe’s policy, not a formal pledge or agreement.
• Monroe’s successors have varied in their adherence to the Doctrine, with some ignoring, reviving, distorting, or expanding it.
• The Doctrine has grown and evolved alongside the United States, adapting to the nation’s changing circumstances and power.

The Monroe Doctrine: Nationalism and Illusion of Isolationism

• The Monroe Doctrine was an expression of the post-1812 nationalism energizing the United States.
• Although directed at a specific menace in 1823, the Doctrine became the most famous long-lived product of that nationalism.
• It voiced a spirit of patriotism while deepening the illusion of isolationism.
• Many Americans mistakenly believed that the Republic was insulated from European dangers simply by declaring so.
• Monroe’s public warning to Old World powers contributed to this false sense of security.

AHC Note — By the mid-1800s, the Monroe Doctrine, combined with the concept of Manifest Destiny, encouraged Americans to spread across the continent. As Americans moved West, the United States annexed Texas, went to war with Mexico, and signed treaties with Mexico and Great Britain that established a nation that stretched from “sea to shining sea.”

Additional Resources for Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism

The notes on this page are based on the 16th edition of The American Pageant. We have expanded on the source material with additional details, corrections, and links to Encyclopedia Entries that explain topics in more detail. For more information, including terms and definitions, see the following:

• Advanced Placement United States History (APUSH) Units
• The Confederation and the Constitution (1776–1790)
• Launching the New Ship of State (1789–1800)
• The Triumphs and Travails of the Jeffersonian Republic (1800–1812)
• The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism (1812–1824)
• The Rise of Mass Democracy (1824–1840)
• Forging the National Economy (1790–1860)
• The Ferment of Reform and Culture (1790–1860)