APUSH Chapter 3, Settling the Northern Colonies

Growth and Development of the New England and Middle Colonies American

England’s Northern Colonies included the New England Colonies and Middle Colonies. In these colonies, growth and development were driven by a blend of cultures, religions, natural resources, geography, and climate. Internal conflicts between colonists and external conflicts with Native American Indians also shaped the trajectory of these colonies.

Unlike the Chesapeake Region where most early colonists were Indentured Servants, the Northern Colonies were largely populated with families — and sometimes entire communities — that migrated together to the New World.

A singular event — the Great Puritan Migration — saw thousands of Puritans, seeking to escape religious persecution in England under King Charles I, arrive in New England in large numbers in the early 1600s. The Puritans intended to create communities centered around their religious principles, establishing farming communities and towns with distinct English roots and political systems.

While the religious principles of the Puritans created social, economic, and legal order, they also created internal disagreements. Many Puritans had agreed to leave England to start a new life, without repression — only to find Puritan leaders were quick to impose their own rules and regulations.

In Massachusetts, conflicts arose between the elite class and religious dissenters, leading to the establishment of new settlements and colonies. The Middle Colonies, where multiple ethnic cultures lived close to each other and religious freedom was accepted, also suffered from internal conflicts. These conflicts in the Northern Colonies led to the development of political systems and values that represented the beliefs of the people they governed.

By 1700, the Northern Colonies had developed into a unique society shaped by mixing European and African influences, interactions with Indians, and diverse populations. However, they retained their connections to the Southern Colonies and England through language and allegiance to the Crown.

The Protestant Reformation Produces Puritanism

In 1517, Martin Luther initiated the Protestant Reformation by challenging the Catholic Church’s teachings, emphasizing that the Bible alone was God’s word and that salvation came through faith in Christ alone. John Calvin furthered this movement with Calvinism, which stressed predestination, the belief that God had already chosen who would be saved. Calvinists, known for their hard work, believed in proving their worthiness through diligent lives. In England, King Henry VIII broke from the Catholic Church, leading to the rise of the Puritans, who sought to reform the Church of England. Some Puritans, called Separatists or Pilgrims, left England to escape religious persecution by King James I.

Martin Luther, 95 Theses, Painting — This painting depicts Martin Luther nailing his 95 Theses to the door of the church in Wittenberg, Germany. Image Source: Wikimedia.

Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther, a German friar, started his protest against Catholic doctrines in 1517.
He nailed his protests to the door of the church in the village of Wittenberg.
Luther did not foresee that his actions would influence the destiny of a future nation.
He denounced the authority of priests and popes.
Luther asserted that the Bible alone was the source of God’s word.
His actions sparked the Protestant Reformation.
The Reformation spread across Europe for over a century.
It divided peoples and toppled sovereigns.
It ignited spiritual passion in millions.
Some of these passional people later helped to found America.

John Calvin and the Spread of Calvinism

John Calvin of Geneva was influenced by the Protestant Reformation.
He elaborated on Martin Luther’s ideas.
Calvin’s interpretations impacted future generations of Americans.
Calvinism emerged as the dominant theological belief.
It was adopted by New England Puritans and other American settlers.
Calvinism influenced Scottish Presbyterians, French Huguenots, and Dutch Reformed Church communicants.

Calvin’s Doctrine and Predestination

John Calvin detailed his doctrine in “Institutes of the Christian Religion,” published in 1536.
He wrote the work in Latin.
Calvin asserted that God was all-powerful and all-good.
Humans were seen as weak and wicked due to Original Sin.
God was described as all-knowing, aware of who would attain Heaven or Hell.
From the moment of creation, some souls were destined for eternal bliss. These people were called “The Elect.”
Other souls were predestined for eternal torment.
According to Calvin, good works could not alter one’s predestined fate.

Uncertainty and the Pursuit of Conversion

The Elect could not rely on their predetermined salvation to justify immoral behavior.
No one could be certain of their status in God’s plan.
Calvinists experienced persistent doubts about their eternal fate.
They searched for signs of “conversion” in themselves and others.
Conversion was considered an intense, identifiable personal experience.
It was believed to be a moment when God revealed an individual’s heavenly destiny.
Following Conversion, the Elect were expected to lead sanctified lives.
Their holy behavior was seen as evidence that they were among the “Visible Saints.”

The Spread of Calvinist Doctrines to England

Calvinist doctrines reached England during the 1530s while King Henry VIII was breaking ties with the Roman Catholic Church.
Henry VIII became the head of the Church of England, which kept many Catholic rituals and creeds.
His actions encouraged some English reformers to push for the complete purification of English Christianity.
These reformers were known as “Puritans.”
Many Puritans came from economically depressed Woolen Districts.
Calvinism’s message provided order and comfort during social unrest.
The economically disadvantaged found spiritual solace in Calvinism.
Puritans grew frustrated with the slow progress of the Protestant Reformation in England and wanted all traces of the Catholic Church removed from the Church of England.

The Rise of Separatists Among Puritans

Devout Puritans, including future New England settlers, had specific beliefs about church membership.
They believed only Visible Saints — those who had undergone Conversion — should be church members.
The Church of England, however, included all of the King’s Subjects.
This inclusion forced “Saints” to share religious spaces with those who were considered lost, or “Strangers.”
This mixing appalled devout Puritans.
A small, dedicated group of Puritans, called Separatists, decided to break away from the Church of England entirely.

AHC Note — The Separatists were an offshoot of another group, known as the Brownists.

King James I and His Stance on Separatists

King James I, a Scotsman, ruled as the head of the state and the church in England from 1603 to 1625.
He recognized the potential threat posed by his subjects defying him as a spiritual leader.
King James I feared that this defiance could extend to his political authority.
His concerns were later validated when his son, Charles I, was defied and beheaded.
King James I threatened to expel the Separatists from England, to maintain control.

AHC Note — When King James I ascended to the throne of England, Puritans thought he would support their movement. However, at the Hampton Court Conference (1603), he quickly made his intentions clear, announcing the Puritans would conform to his rules for the Church of England or he would “harry them out of the land.” Despite his threat, he did submit to the Puritan’s request for a new version of the Bible, known as the King James Bible or the Holy Bible.

The Pilgrims End Their Pilgrimage at Plymouth

The Pilgrims, originally from England, moved to Holland but worried their children were adopting Dutch customs. Seeking religious freedom, they negotiated with the Virginia Company, and around 100 passengers sailed on the Mayflower for 65 days, arriving in New England in 1620. Only half of the Mayflower’s passengers were Separatists. They settled at Plymouth, where William Bradford and Captain Myles Standish helped lead the colony. Before landing, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, establishing self-governance. Despite a harsh winter in 1620–1621, they celebrated the First Thanksgiving in 1621. William Bradford’s leadership helped Plymouth thrive until it merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1691.

Embarkation of the Pilgrims, Painting, Weir, BM — *Embarkation of the Pilgrims*, Robert Walter Weir. Image Source: Brooklyn Museum.

Separatists Migrate to Holland and America

A congregation of Separatists from the village of Scrooby fled England for Holland in 1608 to escape persecution.
They endured 12 years of toil and poverty in Holland.
The Separatists became increasingly troubled by the “Dutchification” of their children.
They desired a place where they could maintain their English identity and practice purified Protestantism.
America emerged as the logical refuge despite the hardships faced by settlers in Jamestown.

AHC Note — While the Separatists were in the Netherlands, some of their leaders were prominent in the surrounding community, notably William Brewster and John Robinson. Brewster taught at the local university and ran a publishing company known as the Pilgrim Press. Although the Separatists were concerned about their children, another reason they left was they believed that the Netherlands was going to go to war with Spain. See Pilgrim Landmarks and Memorials for more information on the time the Pilgrims spent in Amstermdam and Leiden.

The Mayflower and the Settlement of New England

Separatists in Holland negotiated with the Virginia Company for settlement rights.
They secured the rights and embarked on the Mayflower and the Speedwell.
The Speedwell had to be left behind, and some Separatists abandoned the journey.
The Mayflower spent 65 days at sea.
The Mayflower missed its intended destination and arrived off the coast of New England in 1620.
The voyage included 102 people; one died during the journey, and one was born, named Oceanus.
Fewer than half of the passengers were Separatists or Saints. The others were Strangers.
Among the non-Separatists was Captain Myles Standish, a soldier of fortune.
Standish, also known as “Captain Shrimp” by a critic, later served as an Indian fighter and negotiator.

The Pilgrims’ Landing and Settlement Challenges

The Pilgrims did not initially land at Plymouth Rock.
They conducted several surveys before choosing Plymouth Bay.
Plymouth Bay was outside the jurisdiction of the Virginia Company.
As a result, the settlers became squatters.
They had no legal right to the land.
They lacked specific authority to establish a government.

The Mayflower Compact and Early Self-Government

Before leaving the Mayflower, the leaders of the factions on the ship created and signed the Mayflower Compact.
The Mayflower Compact was a brief document, not a constitution.
It set a precedent for later written constitutions.
The document was an agreement to form a crude government.
It established that decisions would be made by majority rule under agreed regulations.
41 adult males signed the compact, including eleven men with the rank of “mister.”
Servants and two seamen did not sign the compact.
The agreement was a promising step toward self-government.
Adult males soon started to meet and create laws in open-discussion Town Meetings.
These Town Meetings became significant for the development of the legal system in New England.

The Pilgrims’ First Winter and Resolve

The first winter for the Pilgrims in 1620–1621 was devastating.
Only 44 out of 102 Pilgrims survived the winter.
At one point, only 7 were healthy enough to bury the dead.
Despite the difficulties, none of the Separatists chose to return to England when the Mayflower sailed back in the spring.
A Pilgrim noted their determination, stating, “It is not with us as with other men, whom small things can discourage.”

Prosperity and the First Thanksgiving

The Pilgrims believed God made them prosperous.
The autumn of 1621 brought abundant harvests.
This season marked the first Thanksgiving Day in New England.
The colony eventually developed a stable economy based on fur, fish, and lumber.
The beaver provided sustenance for the body, and the Bible provided sustenance for the soul.
Plymouth demonstrated that the English could sustain themselves in the challenging climate of New England.

First Thanksgiving, 1621, Painting, Brownscombe — This painting by Jennie A. Brownscombe depicts the First Thanksgiving in 1621. Image Source: Wikipedia.

Leadership and Legacy of Plymouth Colony

The Pilgrims were fortunate to have effective leaders.
William Bradford was a prominent leader and a self-taught scholar fluent in multiple languages.
Bradford was elected governor thirty times.
He feared that independent, non-Puritan settlers might corrupt the colony’s religious purity.
Fishing villages and other settlements emerged to the north in Massachusetts Bay, focusing on both cod and religious interests.
Plymouth remained quiet and quaint, never becoming economically or numerically significant.
By 1691, Plymouth’s population was only seven thousand and it merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
Despite its size, Plymouth held significant moral and spiritual influence.

The Bay Colony Bible Commonwealth

In 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Company received a Royal Charter to establish a colony in New England. Soon after, 11 ships carrying around 1,000 people sailed from England to Massachusetts. John Winthrop inspired the colonists to establish a “city on a hill” and helped guide the colony. He was elected Governor or Deputy Governor for 19 years, helping Massachusetts thrive in fishing, shipbuilding, and the Fur Trade.

John Winthrop, New England Confederation Governor, Portrait — John Winthrop. Image Source: Wikimedia.

Puritans and the Establishment of Massachusetts

Separatist Pilgrims were Religious Dissenters, representing the purest form of Puritans.
More moderate Puritans aimed to reform the Church of England from within.
These Puritans faced resentment from bishops and monarchs but gradually gained support, especially in Parliament.
Charles I dismissed Parliament in 1629 and supported the anti-Puritan actions taken by Archbishop William Laud, which alarmed many Puritans.

Massachusetts Bay Company

In 1629, a group of non-Separatist Puritans, concerned for their faith and England’s future, obtained a Royal Charter to form the Massachusetts Bay Company.
They intended to establish a sizable settlement in Massachusetts, with Boston as its hub.
The Puritans took their charter with them to Massachusetts, using it as a constitution.
They insisted they did not wish to separate from the Church of England, only from its impurities.
Archbishop Laud criticized the Bay Colony Puritans, calling them “swine which rooted in God’s vineyard.”

AHC Note — The leaders of the Massachusetts Bay Company took the charter to Massachusetts, instead of leaving it in England. This made it more difficult for the Crown to control the company, due to the distance between Massachusetts and England.

The Winthrop Fleet and the Great Puritan Migration

The expedition of 1630, known as the Winthrop Fleet, started Massachusetts on a larger scale than other English settlements.
Eleven vessels carrying nearly 1,000 immigrants launched the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
Continued turmoil in England drove additional waves of Puritans to Massachusetts in the following decade.
The Great Puritan Migrant of the 1630s saw about 70,000 refugees leave England.
Not all migrants were Puritans, and only about 20,000 settled in Massachusetts.
Many refugees preferred the warm, fertile West Indies, especially Barbados, known for its sugar production.
More Puritans settled in the Caribbean island of Barbados than in all of Massachusetts.

John Winthrop and the Prosperity of Massachusetts

Many wealthy, educated people emigrated to Massachusetts.
John Winthrop, a prominent figure in English society, became the colony’s first Governor.
Winthrop was a successful attorney and manor lord in England.
He believed he had a “calling” from God to lead the new religious experiment.
Winthrop served as Governor or Deputy Governor for a total of 19 years.
The skills and resources of settlers like Winthrop contributed to the colony’s prosperity.
Fur trading, fishing, and shipbuilding became key industries.
Massachusetts Bay Colony was the largest and most influential New England Colony.

The Puritan Vision and Sense of Purpose

Massachusetts thrived due to a shared sense of purpose among the first settlers.
Governor John Winthrop declared, “We shall be as a city upon a hill,” envisioning the colony as setting an example for immigrants who followed.
The Massachusetts Puritans believed they had a covenant with God.
This covenant was an agreement to build a holy society.
They aimed to create a model society for all humankind.

Building the Bay Colony

The foundation of Massachusetts was based on Puritan principles, which led to the development of a structured political system. Male members of the church, known a “Freemen,” were allowed to vote in provincial elections. At the town level, more people were allowed to vote, especially if they owned land and the majority ruled. This helped establish the Town Hall Meeting as the basis of New England politics. However, Puritan religious leaders played a role in politics, so there was not a complete separation of church and state. Puritan ideals contributed to a lifestyle that is often portrayed as stern and rigid, due to laws that restricted public activities.

Governance and Voting Rights in the Massachusetts Bay Colony

Shared convictions among settlers deeply influenced the colony’s life.
The franchise was extended to all “Freemen,” adult males who were members of Puritan congregations, later known as the Congregational Church.
Men and all women who were not church members were not allowed to vote in provincial elections.
Approximately two-fifths of adult males had the right to vote in provincial affairs, a higher proportion than in England (at the time).
Town governments, which handled significant business, were even more inclusive.
All male property holders, and sometimes other residents, could discuss and vote on local issues.
Voting in Town Meetings was conducted by a majority and simple show of hands.

Governance and Democracy in the Massachusetts Bay Colony

The provincial government of the Massachusetts Bay Colony was liberal for its time, however, it was not a true democracy, because participation was limited.
Governor John Winthrop distrusted the common people, viewing democracy as the worst form of government.
A Puritan clergyman questioned, “If the people be governors, who shall be governed?”
Freemen, who were annually elected, chose the governor, his assistants, and the General Court, a representative assembly.
Only Puritans, or Visible Saints eligible for church membership, could be Freemen.
The government’s purpose, according to the Doctrine of the Covenant, was to enforce God’s laws on both believers and nonbelievers.
Both believers and nonbelievers paid taxes to support the government-supported church.

Influence of Religious Leaders in the Massachusetts Bay Colony

Religious leaders held significant power in Massachusetts, which has been referred to as the “Bible Commonwealth.”
Leaders influenced church membership through public interrogations of conversion experiences.
John Cotton was a prominent early clergyman.
Cotton was educated at England’s Cambridge University, a Puritan stronghold.
He emigrated to Massachusetts to avoid persecution for criticizing the Church of England.
In Massachusetts, he defended the government’s duty to enforce religious rules.
Cotton was known for his commitment, often preaching and praying for up to 6 hours a day.

Checks on Clergy Power and Separation of Church and State

The power of preachers in the Massachusetts Bay Colony was not absolute.
Congregations set the salaries of ministers and could fire and hire them.
Clergymen were prohibited from holding formal political office.
This policy was influenced by the Puritans’ negative experiences with the political Anglican clergy in England.
The colonists wanted to prevent a similar union of religious and government power in the New World.
Because of these limitations, Massachusetts practiced a limited version of the Separation of Church and State.

Puritan Work Ethics and Lifestyle

Despite their spiritual intensity, Puritans were worldly and pragmatic.
They believed in a “calling” to do God’s work on earth, as emphasized by John Winthrop.
They adhered to the “Protestant Work Ethic,” which emphasized hard work and discouraged worldly pursuits.
Contrary to some legends, Puritans enjoyed simple pleasures such as eating, drinking, and singing.
They passed laws to ensure these pleasures remained modest by repressing certain instincts.
In New Haven, a young married couple was fined 20 shillings for kissing in public.
Connecticut was later nicknamed “the Blue Law State” because its repressive laws were printed on blue paper.

Seriousness of Puritan Life and the Reality of Hell

Life for the Puritans was taken very seriously, with a strong belief in the reality of Hellfire.
Hell was depicted as a place where sinners would suffer eternally, shrieking for mercy in vain.
Michael Wigglesworth’s poem “Day of Doom” (1662) was immensely popular in New England.
The poem sold one copy for every 20 people.
Wigglesworth’s descriptions of the fate of the damned were especially horrifying.
The poem vividly portrayed the eternal torment of sinners, emphasizing the Puritan belief in the severity of divine judgment.

Trouble in the Commonwealth

Puritans emigrated to the New World to escape religious persecution. However, the Puritan regime exhibited tight control of the colony. It did not tolerate other religions, and it was quick to deal with dissenters from within the church. Roger Williams, an idealist who urged a complete separation from the Church of England and opposed civil governance of religious behavior, was also banished in 1635. He founded the Rhode Island colony, promoting religious freedom. Anne Hutchinson, a vocal and intelligent woman, promoted “Antinomianism,” claiming that a holy life did not guarantee salvation and that the truly saved were not bound by laws. In 1638, she was banished for her beliefs and moved to Rhode Island, later dying in an Indian attack in New York. Massachusetts also banned Quakers, who faced physical punishment and even death.

Social Harmony and Persecution in the Bay Colony

Massachusetts initially experienced a high degree of social harmony due to common beliefs.
Despite this unity, dissension emerged within the community.
Quakers, who challenged the authority of the Puritan clergy, faced severe persecution.
Punishments for Quakers included fines, floggings, and banishment.
In an extreme case, four Quakers, including a woman named Mary Dyer, were hanged on the Boston Common for defying expulsion.

Anne Hutchinson and Antinomianism

Anne Hutchinson posed a significant challenge to Puritan Orthodoxy.
She was intelligent, strong-willed, and articulate, and she was the mother of 14 children.
Hutchinson excelled in theological arguments, taking the Puritan Doctrine of Predestination to its logical extremes.
She argued that a holy life was not a guaranteed sign of salvation.
Hutchinson claimed that the truly saved did not need to obey the laws of God or man.
This belief, known as Antinomianism — Greek for “against the law” — was considered high heresy.

Trial and Banishment of Anne Hutchinson

Anne Hutchinson was brought to trial in 1638.
She skillfully confounded her clerical inquisitors for several days.
Hutchinson eventually claimed that her beliefs were derived from a direct revelation from God, which was deemed even higher heresy.
The Puritan magistrates decided to banish her to prevent her from corrupting the Puritan experiment.
Hutchinson, pregnant at the time, set out with her family for Rhode Island.
She later moved to New York, where she and all but one of her household were killed by Indians.
John Winthrop interpreted her fate as “God’s hand” at work.

The Challenges of Roger Williams

Roger Williams, a personable and popular minister in Salem, posed a significant threat to Puritan leaders.
Williams was known for his radical ideas and unrestrained speech.
He was an extremist who urged his fellow clergymen to completely break away from the Church of England.
Williams challenged the legality of the colony’s charter, condemning it for taking land from the Indians without fair compensation.
He denied the authority of civil government to regulate religious behavior, which contradicted the Puritan belief in the government’s role.

The Banishment of Roger Williams

By 1635, the Massachusetts authorities had exhausted their patience with Roger Williams.
Williams was found guilty of spreading “new and dangerous opinions.”
The authorities ordered his banishment from the colony.
Due to illness, Williams was allowed to stay a few more months, during which he continued his criticisms.
The magistrates, fearing he might organize a rival colony of dissenters, planned to exile him to England.

The Rhode Island “Sewer”

Rhode Island was founded by Roger Williams, who made Religious Tolerance and the Separation of Church and State key pieces of the colony’s philosophy. This appealed to many Religious Dissenters, including Quakers, who were unwelcome in Massachusetts. Rhode Island received a Royal Charter in 1644, solidifying its status as a colony, separate from Massachusetts.

The Banishment of Roger Williams, Painting, Rothermel — *The Banishment of Roger Williams* (c. 1850) by Peter F. Rothermel. Image Source: Rhode Island Historical Society.

Roger Williams and the Founding of Rhode Island

Roger Williams fled to the Rhode Island area in 1636, aided by friendly Indians, during a harsh winter.
He founded Providence and built what was likely the first Baptist church in America.
Williams established complete Freedom of Religion, even extending it to Jews and Catholics.
He required no oaths regarding religious beliefs and no compulsory worship attendance.
Williams imposed no taxes to support a state church.
He provided shelter for persecuted Quakers, despite disagreeing with their views.
His support for Religious Tolerance made Rhode Island the most liberal of the English settlements in the New World.
Rhode Island’s policies were also more progressive than most communities in the Old World.

Life and Governance in Rhode Island

Outcasts who gathered around Roger Williams benefited from additional freedoms.
From the beginning, men were allowed to vote, although this was later restricted by property qualifications.
The Rhode Islanders opposed special privileges, promoting remarkable freedom of opportunity.
Rhode Island soon had other settlements populated by malcontents and exiles.
These settlers included those who could not tolerate the strict theological atmosphere of Massachusetts.
Many inhabitants of “Rogues’ Island,” including Anne Hutchinson, shared little with Williams — except their unwelcome status elsewhere.
The Puritan clergy in Boston derisively referred to Rhode Island as “that sewer” where the “Lord’s debris” had gathered and decayed.

Independence and Legal Recognition of Rhode Island

Rhode Island developed a strongly individualistic and independent character.
It earned the nickname “the traditional home of the otherwise minded.”
Initially a squatter colony in 1636 with no legal standing, Rhode Island secured a charter from Parliament in 1644, establishing its rights to the land.
A statue of the “Independent Man” stands on the dome of the statehouse in Providence, symbolizing Rhode Island’s spirit of independence.

New England Spreads Out

The population of Massachusetts grew and some groups looked to start new towns and churches, beginning America’s Westward Expansion. One group was led by Reverend Thomas Hooker, who started what eventually became Connecticut. Another was New Haven, which became part of Connecticut in the 1660s. More settlements were established in what became New Hampshire and Maine, but both regions were often under the control of Massachusetts.

The Settlement of the Connecticut River Valley

The fertile Connecticut River Valley attracted Dutch and English settlers.
Hartford was founded in 1635.
In 1636, Boston Puritans led by Reverend Thomas Hooker moved to the Hartford area, starting Westward Expansion (although it was not called Manifest Destiny at the time).
In 1639, the settlers drafted the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, a pioneering document.
The Fundamental Orders acted as a modern constitution, establishing a democratically controlled regime by substantial citizens.
Features of the Fundamental Orders were later incorporated into Connecticut’s colonial charter and state constitution.

The Founding and Fate of New Haven

New Haven was established in 1638 by Puritans seeking a closer church-government alliance than in Massachusetts.
The community was prosperous but lacked a formal charter, making them squatters.
The colonists intended to develop New Haven into a major seaport.
They fell out of favor with King Charles II for sheltering two judges who had condemned his father, King Charles I, to death.
In 1662, Charles II granted a charter to Connecticut, merging New Haven with the more democratic settlements in the Connecticut Valley, causing distress among New Haven residents.

Northern Expansion and Colonization Efforts

Fishermen and fur traders were active on the Maine coast for years before Plymouth was founded.
Sir Ferdinando Gorges attempted colonization in Maine in 1623 but failed.
Massachusetts formally purchased Maine from the Gorges heirs in 1677.
Maine remained part of Massachusetts for nearly 150 years before becoming a separate state.
New Hampshire developed from fishing and trading along its coast.
Massachusetts absorbed New Hampshire in 1641 through a broad interpretation of its charter.
Annoyed by Massachusetts’ greed, the King separated New Hampshire in 1679, making it a Royal Colony.
Control of New Hampshire continually shifted between New Hampshire and Massachusetts until 1741.
In 1741, King George II established New Hampshire as an independent province and appointed Benning Wentworth as Governor.

Puritans Versus Indians

By the time the Pilgrims settled at Plymouth, an epidemic significantly reduced the Indian population in New England. Unaware of the devastation, the Pilgrims settled on the site of an abandoned Indian village. Soon after, members of the Wampanoag Tribe, who survived the epidemic, approached the Pilgrims. While Squanto and others taught the Pilgrims how to plant corn, their chief, Massasoit, agreed to a treaty with the Pilgrims. Unfortunately, relations soured over time, as Plymouth and Massachusetts expanded, leading to the Pequot War. As the colonists gained more control of New England, they tried to convert Indians to Christianity and established “Praying Towns.” While some Indians converted, others resisted, leading to King Philip’s War.

Clashes with Native Americans in New England

The expansion of English settlements led to conflicts with Indian Nations.
Indian tribes in New England were weakened before the Pilgrims’ arrival in 1620.
An epidemic, likely caused by contact with English fishermen, devastated the coastal tribes.
The epidemic, known as the Great Dying, killed more than three-quarters of the Indian population.
The Plymouth settlers encountered deserted Indian fields ready for cultivation.
Scattered skulls and bones provided evidence of the epidemic’s impact on the native people.

Early Relations with the Wampanoag Indians

The Wampanoag Indians, unable to resist English incursion, initially befriended the Pilgrims.
Cultural accommodation was facilitated by Squanto, a Wampanoag who had learned English after being kidnapped by a ship’s captain and taken to England.
In 1621, Wampanoag chieftain Massasoit signed a treaty with the Plymouth Pilgrims.
Massasoit also helped the Pilgrims celebrate the first Thanksgiving after the autumn harvests of 1621.

AHC Note — Squanto and some other men from the village of Patuxet were kidnapped by Captain Thomas Hunt and taken to Europe to be sold as slaves. Squanto was able to escape and he traveled to Spain and England. He learned English and eventually returned to his tribe in New England in 1619.

The Pequot War and Its Aftermath

Increasing English settlement in the Connecticut River valley led to conflicts with Native Americans.
Hostilities erupted in 1637 between English settlers and the Pequot Tribe.
English militiamen, with help from Narragansett Indian allies, attacked a Pequot village on the Mystic River.
They set fire to the wigwams and shot the fleeing survivors.
This brutal action ended the Pequot War, effectively annihilating the Pequot tribe.
The war’s conclusion ushered in roughly 40 years of uneasy peace between the Puritan Colonies and Indians.

Puritan Efforts to Convert Indians

The Puritans faced criticism in England for their treatment of Indians.
In response, they made some attempts to convert Indians to Christianity.
Puritan missionary efforts were less intense compared to those of the Catholic Spanish and French.
Only a small number of Indians were brought into Puritan “Praying Towns.”
These towns were designed to introduce Native Americans to the English God and English cultural practices.
Indians who accepted Christianity were known as “Praying Indians” and often took Anglicanized names.

King Philip’s War and Its Devastation

The Indians’ hope for stopping English encroachment lay in forming a confederacy of tribes.
In 1675, Metacom (King Philip), the son of Massasoit, allied with other Indian tribes.
Metacom led coordinated assaults on English villages across New England.
Frontier settlements were particularly affected, causing refugees to retreat to Boston.
The war, ending in 1676, saw 52 Puritan towns attacked and 12 destroyed.
Hundreds of colonists and even more Indians were killed.
Metacom’s wife and son were sold into slavery.
Metacom was captured, and killed, and his body was mutilated.
His head was displayed on a pike in Plymouth for years as a warning to Indians.

Aftermath of King Philip’s War

King Philip’s War slowed the Westward Expansion of English settlement in New England for several decades.
The war resulted in a significant defeat for New England’s Indians.
The Indian population was drastically reduced in numbers.
Survivors were disbanded. Some were assimilated into other tribes and some were sold into slavery.
Post-war, Indians posed only sporadic threats to the New England colonists.

Seeds of Colonial Unity and Independence

In 1643, the four Puritan Colonies formed the New England Confederation. This was an early attempt at military unification and had limited political power. Each colony retained its government but agreed to consider providing military resources in the case of attacks by Indians, the French, or the Spanish. During this time, the English Civil Wars were taking place. The English government essentially ignored the American Colonies, ushering in what is commonly known as “Salutary Neglect.” Following the Stuart Restoration, King Charles II decided to use his authority to exert more control over the colonies, especially Massachusetts.

The Formation of the New England Confederation

In 1643, four colonies formed the New England Confederation, a pioneering experiment in union.
The formation happened during a period when England was involved in civil wars, leaving the colonies to rely on their resources.
The primary purpose of the confederation was a defense against common enemies, including Indians, the French, and the Dutch.
The confederation also addressed intercolonial issues such as runaway servants and criminals fleeing between colonies.
Each member colony had two votes, regardless of size, a point of contention for the populous Massachusetts Colony.

Composition and Exclusivity of the New England Confederation

The New England Confederation was exclusive to Puritan Colonies.
It included the two Massachusetts colonies (the Bay Colony and Plymouth) and the two Connecticut colonies (New Haven and the scattered valley settlements).
Rhode Island and the Maine outposts were excluded.
The exclusion was partly due to Rhode Island and Maine’s perceived liberalism and tolerance of non-Puritan individuals.
Notably, one Maine town had appointed a tailor as its mayor and provided refuge to an excommunicated minister.

Significance of the New England Confederation

The New England Confederation, despite its weaknesses, was an early milestone in the journey toward colonial unity.
Delegates started to collaborate on intercolonial matters, taking essential steps towards collective action.
Ordinary colonists gained valuable experience in delegating their votes to elected representatives.
The confederation set a precedent for future efforts in uniting the colonies.

The Era of Salary Neglect Begins

During the early years of colonial planting, the Crown paid little attention to the American colonies.
The colonies were effectively allowed to become semi-autonomous commonwealths.
This period of “Benign Neglect” — or “Salutary Neglect” — continued as the Crown struggled to maintain its power.
The English Civil Wars of the 1640s between the Crown and the Parliamentarians further distracted the King from colonial affairs.

AHC Note — From 1642 to 1651, England was caught up in a civil between supporters of Parliament, known as Parliamentarians, and supporters of the King, known as Royalists. At the center of the dispute was Parliament’s intention to limit the power of King Charles I. In 1649, the Parliamentarians, led by Oliver Cromwell, took control of England. Cromwell died in 1658, and the Parliamentarians struggled to retain control. The era, known as the Interregnum, ended in 1660 when the monarchy was restored and King Charles II took the throne.

Stuart Restoration

King Charles II was restored to the English throne in 1660.
The Royalists and their Church of England allies regained control.
Puritan hopes of purifying the English church faded.
Charles II was determined to actively and aggressively manage the American Colonies.
His plans clashed with the colonists’ habits of relative independence that had developed over time.

Colonial Defiance and Royal Retribution

Colonial defiance was most evident in Massachusetts.
A royal agent in Boston found that royal orders were largely ignored.
In response, Charles II took punitive measures.
In 1662, Connecticut received a sea-to-sea charter grant, legalizing its squatter settlements.
In 1663, Rhode Island was granted a new charter, endorsing its religious tolerance.
The final blow to Massachusetts came in 1684 when its charter was revoked by London authorities.

Andros Promotes the First American Revolution

In 1686, the Dominion of New England was established. It revoked the charters for the New England Colonies and placed them under one government. This new regime was tasked with strengthening colonial defense and enforcing the Navigation Acts, which contributed to widespread smuggling. Sir Edmund Andros, the Governor of the Dominion, was unpopular due to his support for the Church of England and his oppressive measures, including curbing Town Meetings, restricting the courts and press, revoking land titles, and imposing taxes without consent from colonial legislatures. The Glorious Revolution in England contributed to the collapse of the Dominion.

Edmund Andros, Colonial Governor, Portrait, Batcheller — Edmund Andros. Image Source: Wikimedia.

The Dominion of New England

In 1686, the Crown punished Massachusetts was punished with the creation of the Dominion of New England.
Unlike the homegrown New England Confederation, the Dominion was imposed from London.
Initially, it included the New England Colonies and was expanded in 1688 to include New York and East and West Jersey.
The Dominion aimed to bolster colonial defense in case of war with the Indians.
From the imperial perspective of Parliament, this was considered a statesmanlike move.

Purpose and Impact of the Dominion of New England

It was also a move to exert English control over New England and ensure compliance with the Navigation Acts.
These laws responded to the growing rivalries between England and European rivals.
The Navigation Acted tightened control over England’s overseas possessions by restricting American trade with non-English countries.
American colonists resented these trade restrictions.
Smuggling became a common and even honorable occupation among the colonists.

Sir Edmund Andros and Colonial Resentment

Sir Edmund Andros, a domineering politician and experienced English military leader, was appointed head of the Dominion of New England.
He was conscientious but tactless in his approach.
Andros established his headquarters in Boston.
His open affiliation with the Church of England generated significant hostility.
Colonists were outraged by his noisy soldiers who refused to observe the Sabbath.
The soldiers were accused of encouraging drinking, blasphemy, cursing, and damning among the people.

Andros’ Authoritarian Measures

Andros quickly imposed authoritarian measures.
He curtailed Town Meetings.
Andros imposed heavy restrictions on courts, the press, and schools.
He revoked all land titles.
Andros bypassed the colonial assemblies and taxed people without their elected representatives’ consent.
Andros enforced the unpopular Navigation Acts and sought to suppress smuggling.
Colonists, accustomed to their freedoms during years of Salutary Neglect, were driven to the brink of revolt by these measures.

AHC Note — Joseph Dudley was the first President — or Governor — of the Dominion of New England. Andros replaced him in June 1686.

The Glorious Revolution and the Fall of the Dominion of New England

The Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689 in England dethroned King James II, who was Catholic.
The Protestant rulers William III and Mary, daughter of James II, ascended to the throne.
News of the Glorious Revolution led to the collapse of the Dominion of New England.
Inspired by the events in England, a Boston mob rose against the existing regime (Boston Revolt).
Sir Edmund Andros attempted to flee, disguised in women’s clothing, but was captured and imprisoned.
Andros was sent back to England.

Aftermath of the Glorious Revolution for Massachusetts

Despite the removal of Sir Edmund Andros, Massachusetts did not benefit as much as expected from the Glorious Revolution.
In 1691, Massachusetts was made a Royal Colony with a new charter and a new Royal Governor.
The loss of the original charter was a significant blow to the Puritans.
The Puritans never fully recovered from this loss.
The privilege of voting, previously limited to church members, was extended to all qualified male property holders.

Colonial Response to the Glorious Revolution

The Glorious Revolution in England had significant effects throughout the American colonies.
Inspired by the events in England, many colonists took the opportunity to challenge royal authority.
Unrest occurred in New York (Leisler’s Rebellion) and Maryland (Coode’s Rebellion) from 1689 to 1692.
Royal Governors eventually restored order.
The new monarchs, William III and Mary, relaxed control over colonial trade.
Salutary Neglect returned, and there was weak enforcement of the Navigation Acts.

Residual Effects of Charles II’s Administration

The efforts of King Charles II to tighten administrative control had long-term effects on the American Colonies.
By this time, more English officials, including judges, clerks, and customs officials, were now living in America.
Many of these officials were incompetent and corrupt, with little knowledge or concern for American affairs.
They were appointed by influential patrons in England, preventing local leaders from rising to political power.
Colonists viewed these officials with increasing contempt and resentment as the 18th Century progressed.

Old Netherlanders and New Netherland

In the late 16th Century, the Netherlands gained independence from Spain. Soon after, the nation entered a Golden Age, and the Dutch East India Company and Dutch West India Company spread their influence into new parts of the world by sponsoring expeditions to conduct trade and to explore the New World. In 1609, Henry Hudson claimed Delaware and New York Bay for the Netherlands. Later, the Dutch West India Company purchased Manhattan Island and established New Amsterdam. The Patroon System helped bring new settlers to New Netherland, and the colony offered some level of Religious Tolerance.

Dutch Rebellion Against Spain

In the late 16th Century, the Netherlands rebelled against Catholic Spain.
The conflict involved prolonged and bloody fighting.
The Dutch received support from Protestant England.
Eventually, the Netherlands gained independence.

Dutch Golden Age and Naval Wars with England

The 17th Century was a Golden Age in Dutch history, marked by renowned artists like Rembrandt.
The Netherlands emerged as a major commercial and naval power.
Despite England’s earlier support, the Dutch challenged English supremacy.
Three major Anglo-Dutch naval wars occurred in the seventeenth century.
Each side had fleets with as many as a hundred ships.
The Dutch and English dealt equally heavy blows to each other during these conflicts.

Dutch Republic as a Colonial Power

The Dutch Republic became a prominent colonial power.
Its greatest colonial activity was in the East Indies.
The Dutch maintained a profitable empire in the East Indies for more than 300 years.
The Dutch East India Company (DEIC) was a powerful entity, almost like a state within a state.
At its peak, the company supported an army of 10,000 men and a fleet of 190 ships, including 40 warships.

Henry Hudson and Dutch Exploration

The DEIC hired English explorer Henry Hudson to go in search of riches and the fabled “Northwest Passage.”
Ignoring orders to sail northeast, Hudson explored Delaware Bay and New York Bay in 1609.
He sailed up the Hudson River, hoping to find a shortcut through the continent.
Instead, Hudson’s exploration resulted in a Dutch claim to the thickly wooded area, which was covered with waterways.

Dutch West India Company

The Dutch West India Company (DWIC) was less powerful than the Dutch East India Company.
It operated profitable enterprises in the Caribbean.
The company often focused more on raiding than trading.
In 1628, it captured a fleet of Spanish treasure ships, seizing valuables worth $15 million.
The DWIC established outposts in Africa and developed a thriving sugar industry in Brazil.
For several decades, Brazil was the company’s principal center of activity in the New World.

Establishment of New Netherland

New Netherland was established in the Hudson River area in 1623–1624.
It was founded by the Dutch West India Company for the Fur Trade, focused on quick profits.
The colony was a secondary interest for the company compared to its other ventures.
The company bought Manhattan Island from the local Indians, who had a different concept of land ownership than the Dutch.
According to older histories of New Netherland, the purchase was made for “worthless trinkets” and glass beads worth 60 Guilders, or $24.
The Dutch acquired 22,000 acres.
Manhattan Island is now considered some of the most valuable real estate in the world.

AHC Note — The story that is often taught about the purchase of Manhattan Island is more rooted in legend than fact. For example, the amount of $24 was published in 1846 and has remained unchanged. By today’s rates, it would be more than $1,000. While it could still be argued — based on modern standards — that the Dutch underpaid the Lenape for the land, the value of the items they traded for, including metal tools and fishhooks, helped alter, improve, and advance their culture. It should also be understood that the Lenape continued to live on the island for many years, but were eventually pushed off in the years after the English took control of New Netherland.

New Amsterdam: A Company Town

New Amsterdam, later known as New York City, was established as a company town.
It was managed by the Dutch West India Company for the benefit of its stockholders.
The company had little interest in promoting Religious Freedom, Freedom of Speech, or democratic practices.
Company-appointed Governors, known as Directors-General, often ruled with a heavy hand.
Religious Dissenters, particularly those opposing the Dutch Reformed Church, were viewed with suspicion.
Quakers faced severe persecution for a while.
Repeated protests by the colonists led to the establishment of a local body with limited lawmaking power.

Aristocratic and Cosmopolitan New Amsterdam

New Amsterdam developed a strongly aristocratic character that persisted for generations.
Large feudal estates, called Patroonships, were established along the Hudson River.
Promoters were granted these estates on the condition that they settled 50 people on them.
One Patroonship near Albany was larger than the future state of Rhode Island.
New Amsterdam attracted a cosmopolitan population, typical of seaport towns.
In the 1640s, a French Jesuit missionary noted that 18 different languages were spoken in the streets.
This linguistic diversity foreshadowed New York’s later status as a hub of immigrant cultures.

AHC Note — The Patroon System was a Dutch landholding system established in the 17th century in colonial New Netherland. Under this system, wealthy individuals, known as Patroons, were granted large estates in exchange for bringing settlers to the colony. The Patroons had almost feudal authority over their estates and tenants, including the right to administer justice. It was similar to the Headright System that was used in Virginia and Maryland.

Friction with English and Swedish Neighbors

The presence of settlers in New Netherland led to conflicts with local Indian tribes and the New England Colonies. Most of these conflicts were over encroachment into Indian territory and competition in the Fur Trade. Sweden also established a colony in the area around present-day Philadelphia, creating more problems for the Dutch. New Netherland forcefully took control of New Sweden, but the Indians and English continued to pose a threat.

Early Struggles and Defensive Measures in New Amsterdam

New Netherland faced numerous early challenges.
Incompetent Directors-General managed the colony poorly.
Company shareholders prioritized dividends over the colony’s well-being.
Infuriated by Dutch cruelties, local Indians retaliated with brutal massacres.
As a defense measure, settlers on Manhattan Island constructed a wall, which later gave Wall Street its name.

AHC Note — Several conflicts took place between New Netherland settlers and the Indians, including:

Kieft’s War (1643–1645)
Peach Tree War (1655)
First Esopus War (1659–1660)
Second Esopus War (1663–1664)

Hostility and Conflict with New England

New England was hostile to the growth of the Dutch colony of New Netherland.
The people of Connecticut expelled Dutch settlers from the Connecticut Valley.
Three of the four colonies in the New England Confederation wanted to use military force to eliminate New Netherland.
Massachusetts, which would have provided the majority of the troops, vetoed the military action.

Swedish Encroachment on Dutch Territory

From 1638 to 1655, the Swedes encroached on Dutch territory by establishing New Sweden on the Delaware River.
This period was Sweden’s Golden Age, coinciding with and following the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648).
King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden championed Protestantism during the war.
This surge of energy led Sweden to participate in the costly colonial competition in America, albeit with limited resources.

End of New Sweden and Dutch Reassertion

The Dutch resented the Swedish colony on the Delaware River and responded with a military expedition in 1655.
The expedition was led by Peter Stuyvesant, the ablest of the Directors-General, known as “Father Wooden Leg” due to a wartime injury.
The main fort of New Sweden fell to the Dutch after a bloodless siege, ending Swedish rule abruptly.
The colonists of New Sweden were absorbed into New Netherland.
Although New Sweden was never significant, it left a legacy in Delaware with Swedish place names, the first log cabins in America, and a mix of Swedish blood.

Dutch Residues in New York

Despite the presence of New Netherland, England still laid claim to the territory, due to the explorations of John Cabot. In 1664, King Charles II granted the area to his brother, James, the Duke of York (and future King James II). Soon after, an English fleet was sent to attack New Amsterdam. The city — and the colony — surrendered. The Dutch briefly regained control but ceded the colony to England for good in 1674. However, the Dutch cultural influence remained through architecture and folklore. The people of New York City retained an autocratic spirit, and Dutch names for areas like Harlem, Brooklyn, and Hell Gate persisted.

Vulnerabilities of New Netherland

New Netherland lacked vitality and was only a secondary commercial interest for the Dutch.
The colony was overshadowed by the strong English colonies to the north.
New Netherland had a significant population of New England immigrants.
By 1664, New England immigrants made up about half of New Netherland’s 10,000 inhabitants.
These immigrants were a threat to seize control of the colony from within.

English Takeover of New Netherland

The English viewed the Dutch on the Hudson as intruders and planned to seize control.
In 1664, King Charles II granted the area to his brother, James the Duke of York.
An English squadron sailed to New Amsterdam.
Peter Stuyvesant, who lacked the necessary artillery and ammunition, was forced to surrender without firing a shot.
New Amsterdam was renamed New York in honor of the Duke of York.
England gained a harbor and a strategically located position in the mainland colonies.
The Hudson River provided a key route into the interior.
The English now controlled a continuous stretch of territory from Maine to the Carolinas.

Persistence of Dutch Influence and Aristocracy in New York

Despite English control, the Province of New York retained many of its earlier cultural and political features.
An autocratic spirit persisted in the colony.
The aristocratic element was strengthened by corrupt English politicians who granted large landholdings to their favorites.
Influential landowning families, such as the Livingstons and the De Lanceys, held disproportionate power in colonial New York.
These monopolistic land policies and the lordly atmosphere discouraged European immigrants.
As a result, the physical growth of New York was hindered.

Dutch Cultural Influence in New York

The Dutch left a lasting impact on place names, such as Harlem (Haarlem), Brooklyn (Breuckelen), and Hell Gate (Hellegat).
Dutch influence is evident in the gambrel-roofed architecture of old buildings
Dutch social customs and folkways contributed to the region’s culture.
Notable Dutch contributions include Easter eggs, Santa Claus, waffles, sauerkraut, bowling, sleighing, skating, and kolf (a precursor to golf) — which was a dangerous game played with heavy clubs and banned in settled areas.

Penn’s Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania

The Quakers were a group of Religious Dissenters who emerged in England in the mid-1600s. They were known for living simple lives, pacifism, and refusing to pay taxes to support the Church of England. William Penn, the son of an English naval officer, was attracted to the Quakers and joined them, against his father’s wishes. As the Quakers suffered persecution in both England the the American Colonies, Penn looked to establish a new colony where they could live in peace. In 1681, he secured a charter from King Charles II and founded Pennsylvania.

Landing of William Penn, Painting, Ferris, LOC — The Landing of William Penn. Image Source: Library of Congress.

Emergence of the Quakers

A notable group of Religious Dissenters called “Quakers” emerged in England during the mid-1600s.
The name came from reports of them “quaking” under deep religious emotion.
Officially, they were known as the Religious Society of Friends.

Quaker Beliefs and Practices

Quakers were particularly offensive to both religious and civil authorities.
They refused to pay taxes to support the Church of England.
Quakers built simple meetinghouses and congregated without a paid clergy.
Members spoke up during meetings when moved by the Spirit.
They believed in equality before God, keeping their hats on in the presence of their “betters” and using simple language like “thee” and “thou” instead of formal titles.
Quakers refused to take oaths, following Jesus’ commandment to “Swear not at all,” which often led to conflicts with government officials who required test oaths to confirm one was not a Roman Catholic.

Quaker Convictions and Practices

Quakers were deeply convicted in their beliefs.
They were Pacifists, and abhorred strife and warfare, refusing to serve in the military.
Advocates of passive resistance, Quakers practiced turning the other cheek.
Quakers would rebuild their meetinghouses on the same sites where enemies had destroyed them.
Their courage and devotion to principles eventually led to triumph.
Despite sometimes appearing stubborn and unreasonable, they were simple, devoted, and democratic.
Quakers fought for religious and civic freedom in a high-minded manner.

William Penn and Quaker Persecution

William Penn, an Englishman, was attracted to the Quaker faith in 1660 at the age of 16.
His father disapproved and administered a severe flogging.
Despite his adventures in the army, Penn firmly embraced the Quaker faith.
He suffered considerable persecution for his beliefs.
Courts branded him as a “saucy” and “impertinent” man.
Several hundred Quakers died due to cruel treatment.
Thousands of Quakers faced fines, floggings, or imprisonment.

William Penn’s Vision for Pennsylvania

William Penn looked to the New World as a refuge for Quakers, who had already settled in places like Rhode Island, North Carolina, and New Jersey.
He intended to establish a haven for Quakers and experiment with liberal ideas in government while making a profit.
In 1681, Penn secured a large grant of fertile land from King Charles II, due to a debt owed to his deceased father by the crown.
The land was named Pennsylvania, meaning “Penn’s Woodland,” in honor of Penn’s father.
Penn, modest and concerned about perceptions, unsuccessfully tried to change the name to avoid the appearance of self-aggrandizement.

Promotion and Settlement of Pennsylvania

Penn successfully marketed Pennsylvania and did a much better job than the founders of other colonies.
William Penn, considered the “first American advertising man,” sent out paid agents and distributed numerous pamphlets in English, Dutch, French, and German.
Unlike many other real estate promoters, Penn’s advertisements were generally truthful.
He welcomed forward-looking individuals and substantial citizens, including skilled workers like carpenters, masons, and shoemakers.
Penn’s liberal land policy, encouraging substantial holdings, attracted a large number of immigrants.

Quaker Pennsylvania and Its Neighbors

The territory granted to Penn already had European settlers living in it and included what had been New Sweden. It also included Indian tribes, who Penn looked to actively establish friendly relations with them. Although Penn’s vision was that of a “Holy Experiment” that would showcase Quaker principles, the government struggled during its early years. Despite the political instability, Pennsylvania was attractive to immigrants, especially those seeking Religious Freedom. Penn was also linked to the establishment of New Jersey and Delaware. In 1688, a group of Quakers living in Germantown made their mark on American history by making the first official demonstration against slavery in the American Colonies.

Founding of Pennsylvania and Philadelphia

William Penn officially founded Pennsylvania in 1681.
His task was eased by the presence of several thousand squatters (Dutch, Swedish, English, Welsh) already settled along the Delaware River.
Philadelphia, meaning “Brotherly Love” in Greek, was meticulously planned.
The city featured wide, attractive streets, distinguishing it from many other colonial cities.

Facts about William Penn’s Relations with Native Americans

William Penn purchased land from Indians, including Chief Tammany. New York’s Tammany Hall is named after him.
Penn’s treatment of Indians was characterized by fairness and trust, allowing Quakers to interact with them unarmed and even employ them as caregivers.
Pennsylvania initially enjoyed a reputation for harmonious relations between Indians and white settlers.
Some southern tribes migrated to Pennsylvania seeking refuge.
Ironically, Quaker tolerance ultimately undermined their policy toward Indians.
The influx of non-Quaker European immigrants into Pennsylvania challenged and eroded the Quaker’s sympathetic policies toward Indians.
The Scots-Irish settlers were particularly resistant to Quaker ideals and policies regarding Indians.

Key Aspects of William Penn’s Proprietary Regime

Penn’s regime in Pennsylvania featured a representative assembly elected by landowners.
There was no tax-supported state church, ensuring religious freedom for all residents.
Initially, freedom of worship was guaranteed to all, although restrictions were later imposed on Catholics and Jews concerning voting and holding office.
The death penalty was reserved for treason and murder, whereas England had an extensive list of around two hundred capital crimes.

Quaker Policies in Pennsylvania

Under Quaker control, Pennsylvania did not allocate resources or establish provisions for military defense as part of its commitment to pacifism.
The colony had no restrictions on immigration, which created a diverse community.
Naturalization procedures were simplified, making it easier for immigrants to become full-fledged citizens.
Quakers in Pennsylvania developed an early and strong aversion to black slavery, which influenced their social policies.
The atmosphere in Pennsylvania, influenced by Quaker principles, supported progress in social reform efforts during its early years.

Characteristics of Pennsylvania as a Quaker Refuge

Pennsylvania attracted a rich mix of ethnic groups due to its many liberal features.
Numerous Religious Dissidents, repelled by the harsh practices of neighboring colonies, found refuge in Pennsylvania.
Pennsylvania had a surprisingly modern atmosphere despite the unmodern age.
It afforded economic opportunity, civil liberty, and Religious Freedom to an unusual degree.
Despite its liberal atmosphere, Pennsylvania enforced “Blue Laws” that prohibited ungodly revelry, stage plays, playing cards, dice, games, and excessive hilarity.

Growth and Prosperity of Pennsylvania

Pennsylvania thrived under favorable conditions.
Quakers were shrewd businesspeople, quickly beginning to export grain and other foodstuffs.
Within two years, Philadelphia had grown to 300 houses and 2,500 people.
By 1700, within 19 years of its founding, Pennsylvania was surpassed in population and wealth only by Virginia and Massachusetts.

William Penn’s Legacy and Challenges

William Penn spent a total of about 4 years in Pennsylvania.
His contributions were never fully appreciated by the settlers.
Penn’s Governors, some incompetent and tactless, frequently argued with the settlers over political control.
Penn’s close relationship with the King James II, a Catholic, raised suspicions.
He was arrested for treason 3 times, spent time in a debtors’ prison, and suffered a paralytic stroke.
His noble experiment in government created a new commonwealth based on civil and religious liberty.
Pennsylvania was dedicated to freedom of conscience and worship.

Development of New Jersey and Quaker Influence

Small Quaker settlements prospered near Pennsylvania.
New Jersey was founded in 1664 when two noble proprietors received the area from the Duke of York.
Many New Englanders, including those from depleted lands, moved to New Jersey.
In 1674, one proprietor sold West New Jersey to a group of Quakers, establishing a sanctuary before Pennsylvania was founded.
East New Jersey was later acquired by the Quakers.
In 1702, the crown combined East and West New Jersey into the Province of New Jersey, a Royal Colony, limiting Quaker influence.

Swedish-Tinged Delaware and Its Relationship with Pennsylvania

Delaware consisted of three counties, humorously referred to as “two at high tide.”
It was named after Lord De La Warr, the harsh military governor who arrived in Virginia in 1610.
Delaware harbored some Quakers and was closely associated with Pennsylvania.
Delaware was granted an assembly in 1703.
Until the American Revolution, Delaware remained under the governor of Pennsylvania.

The Middle Way in the Middle Colonies

The geography and climate in the Middle Colonies were conducive to agriculture. The colonies became major exporters of grain and earned the nickname, “Breadbasket Colonies.” However, other industries were successful, including lumbering and shipbuilding. The Susquehanna River also allowed settlers to participate in the Fur Trade. The culture Middle Colonies was the most diverse of the three regions, which contributed to social and economic growth. The most famous man in America — Benjamin Franklin — was born in Boston, but moved to Philadelphia in 1720. It was there that he started on his path to becoming one of America’s most important Founding Fathers.

Common Features of the Middle Colonies

The middle colonies included New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania.
Fertile soil and broad expanses of land characterized these colonies, in contrast to the rocky terrain of New England.
Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey were known as the “Bread Colonies” due to their heavy exports of grain.
Rivers such as the Susquehanna, Delaware, and Hudson were important to the Fur Trade and attracted settlers to the Backcountry.
These rivers had few waterfalls, unlike New England, making them less suitable for milling or manufacturing with water-wheel power.
Despite this, significant industries developed in the Middle Colonies, including lumbering and shipbuilding from abundant forests.
Deep river estuaries and landlocked harbors improved commerce and the growth of seaports like New York and Philadelphia.
Albany, located over a hundred miles up the Hudson River, was also a significant port during the Colonial Era.

Characteristics of the Middle Colonies

The Middle Colonies were geographically — and culturally — between New England and the Southern Plantation Colonies.
Landholdings in the Middle Colonies were generally intermediate in size — larger than New England’s small farms but smaller than the South’s large plantations.
Local government was a mix between New England’s town meetings and the South’s county governments.
The Middle Colonies had fewer industries than New England but more than the South.

Distinctions of the Middle Colonies

The Middle Colonies were considered the most representative of American characteristics.
They had a more ethnically mixed population compared to other settlements.
There was a high degree of religious toleration and democratic control.
Quakers made significant contributions to human freedom, disproportionate to their numbers.
Desirable land was easier to acquire in the Middle Colonies than in New England or the South.
Economic and social democracy was more prevalent in the Middle Colonies, though less so in aristocratic New York.

Benjamin Franklin and His Connection to the Middle Colonies

Benjamin Franklin is often seen as the most representative American personality of the Colonial Era.
Franklin was born in Boston but moved to Philadelphia at age 17 in 1720.
He arrived in Philadelphia with a loaf of bread under each arm.
Philadelphia’s urbane and open atmosphere provided a comfortable home for Franklin.
Philadelphia was the largest city in North America at that time.
A Pennsylvanian remarked that Franklin “came to life at seventeen, in Philadelphia.”

Benjamin Franklin, Portrait, 1762, Chamberlin — Benjamin Franklin. Image Source: Philadelphia Museum of Art.

Growth and Development in the American Colonies

By the time Franklin arrived in Philadelphia, the American Colonies were experiencing significant growth.
Population was increasing at a rapid rate.
Transportation and communication were improving.
The British maintained a hands-off approach, allowing colonists to manage their local governments and churches.
Colonists developed networks of Intercolonial Trade.
Increased movement of people and products across the colonies fostered a sense of independence from Great Britain.

Resources for Settling the Northern Colonies

The notes on this page are based on the 16th edition of The American Pageant. We have expanded on the source material with additional details, corrections, and links to Encyclopedia Entries that explain topics in more detail. For more information, including terms and definitions, see the following:

Content for this article has been compiled and edited by American History Central Staff.