History
As the British Colonies expanded along the East Coast, the practice of slavery slowly expanded and replaced Indentured Servitude, especially in the Chesapeake Colonies and the other Southern Colonies. This was due in part to the growth and development of large plantations, the introduction of the Headright System, and uprisings such as Bacon’s Rebellion.
As the colonies continued to grow, Abolitionists started to voice opposition to slavery (see Abolition in Colonial America); however, it continued to expand due to the colonies’ involvement in the Triangular Trade System, which was essentially required by the Navigation Acts. By the time of the American Revolution, anti-slavery societies started to emerge. In his draft of the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson criticized King George III for forcing the colonies to participate in the Transatlantic Slave Trade. In the wake of the victory over Britain and the achievement of independence, the northern states passed laws that provided gradual emancipation to the enslaved.
When delegates to the Constitutional Convention assembled in Philadelphia in 1787, one of the more difficult tasks that they faced was resolving sectional differences between the North and the South over slavery. Although the words “slave” or “slavery” are not found in the U.S. Constitution, there were three provisions, including a “Fugitive Slave Clause,” that protected the so-called “peculiar institution.” Meanwhile, Congress enacted the Northwest Ordinance (1787) that banned slavery in the Northwest Territory, which was a major step for the growing Abolition Movement.
Following the Louisiana Purchase (1803), the size of the nation doubled, and there was new territory available for Westward Expansion. The question quickly arose as to whether or not slavery would be allowed in the new territory. This came to a head in 1820 as both Missouri and Maine sought statehood. The Missouri Compromise (1820) admitted Missouri as a Slave State and Maine as a Free State. It also prohibited slavery in the remainder of the Missouri Territory north of the southern border of Missouri (36°30′ north latitude).
During the 1820s, William Lloyd Garrison, an Abolitionist, rose to prominence through the publication of his newspaper, The Liberator. Through the newspaper, Garrison was able to draw enough people to his cause to form the New England Anti-Slavery Society in 1832, which led to the establishment of the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833.
One of The Liberator’s readers was a former slave, Frederick Douglass. The newspaper inspired him to become involved in the Abolitionist Movement. In 1843, the New England Anti-Slavery Society resolved to host 100 meetings across the North. At the urging of William Lloyd Garrison, the group hired Douglass to join its corps of speakers. Douglass eventually published his own anti-slavery newspaper, the North Star.
In the wake of the Mexican Cession (1848) and the California Gold Rush (1849), the issue of expanding slavery into new territories returned to the forefront. A proposal by Pennsylvania Congressman David Wilmot, known as the “Wilmot Proviso,” sought to ban slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico. The measure failed twice, due to opposition from pro-slavery factions in Congress.
The Compromise of 1850 took steps to resolve the issue by admitting California as a Free State, while allowing the new territories of New Mexico and Utah to vote on the issue, a process known as “Popular Sovereignty.” Although Abolitionists were pleased that the slave trade was banned in Washington, D.C., they were outraged by the new, harsher Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. Northern States responded by enacting “Personal Liberty Laws,” which absolved people from helping to return runaway slaves to their owners and made it a crime for state officials to enforce the Fugitive Slave Act.
Abolitionists condemned the law, with William Lloyd Garrison leading a meeting in 1851 that denounced it by saying, “We execrate it, we spit upon it, we trample it under our feet.” Harriet Beecher Stowe responded by publishing Uncle Tom’s Cabin, in hopes of exposing the cruelty and harshness of slavery and the separation of families.
Southern leaders responded by holding the Nashville Convention, where they discussed secession if slavery was not allowed in the Western Territories. During this time, the Underground Railroad emerged to help escaped slaves reach freedom in Canada.
The next great debate over slavery came with the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854). It divided the portion of the Louisiana Purchase that was west of Missouri into two territories, Kansas and Nebraska. The Act employed the concept of Popular Sovereignty, allowing people in the territories of Kansas and Nebraska to decide for themselves whether or not to allow slavery within their borders. In doing so, it repealed the Missouri Compromise, allowing slavery north of the southern border of Missouri (36°30′ north latitude). In the aftermath of the passage of the Act, Abolition groups such as the New England Emigrant Aid Society and pro-slavery groups rushed to establish settlements in Kansas in hopes of forming a government with a Constitution that suited their views on slavery. This led to a violent conflict known as “Bleeding Kansas” that raged from 1855 to 1861. It also spurred a young lawyer, Abraham Lincoln, to enter politics and contributed to the formation of the Republican Party, which Southerners referred to as an “abolition party.”
In 1857, the Supreme Court issued the “Dred Scott Decision,” which declared that people of African descent were not citizens of the United States and that Congress had no Constitutional authority to regulate slavery in U.S. territories, making the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional. Slaves were deemed as private property protected by the Fifth Amendment, which meant their owners could take them anywhere within the United States. The decision intensified the sectional divide, with Southerners celebrating and Northerners denouncing it as politically motivated.
In October 1859, John Brown, a violent Abolitionist, led a raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia, intending to spark a slave revolt. The raid failed, and Brown was captured by U.S. Marines led by Robert E. Lee. Convicted of murder and treason, Brown’s trial and execution turned him into a martyr for the Abolitionist Movement. Many Southerners questioned remaining in the Union, fearing further attacks from Abolitionists, and assumed that the violent stance was representative of the entire North and its Republican leaders.
Leading up to the Presidential Election of 1860, Southerners, led by a faction known as the “Fire-Eaters,” threatened to secede if Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, won the election. Northern and Southern Democrats split over the issue and ran separate candidates, but to no avail. Lincoln won easily, setting the stage for the Secession Crisis.
South Carolina led the Secession Movement and voted to leave the Union on December 20, 1860. By February 1861, six more states followed, creating the Confederate States of America in Montgomery, Alabama, and electing Jefferson Davis as President. During the “lame duck” period before Lincoln’s inauguration, President Buchanan struggled with a pro-Southern cabinet. During this time, Secretary of War John B. Floyd and others helped the Southern States take over Federal forts and military installations while funneling military supplies to them.
For the next five years, the nation was torn apart by the Civil War. By the time it ended in 1865, hundreds of thousands of lives had been lost, the South was in shambles, and President Lincoln had issued the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing all slaves in former U.S. territories that were in “rebellion.”
As the war neared its end, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, and the task of rebuilding the nation was left to President Andrew Johnson and a Congress that was controlled by “Radical Republicans” who sought to punish the South for the war. As part of “Reconstruction,” the process of readmitting the Southern States to the Union, they were required to approve the 13th Amendment, which banned slavery in the United States, except as punishment for a crime, and provided Congress with broad power to ensure enforcement. This was followed by the Fourteenth Amendment, which gave all Freedpeople citizenship and equal protection under the law. Finally, the Fifteenth Amendment granted African Americans the right to vote.
Resources
People
Stephen A. Douglas (1813–1861) — Douglas was a prominent Congressman and Senator from Illinois. He supported Manifest Destiny and Popular Sovereignty and helped pass the Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. In 1858, he participated in a series of public debates with Abraham Lincoln.
John Brown (1800–1859) — Brown was a famous Abolitionist who rose to fame for his willingness to use violence to end slavery. He is most well-known for leading a failed insurrection at Harpers Ferry in October 1859, which intensified the sectional dispute over slavery.
Frederick Douglass (1818–1895) — Douglass was an escaped slave who became a highly acclaimed orator and writer supporting the abolition of slavery before the Civil War and the enactment of African American rights during Reconstruction. He is recognized as an icon of the pre-war Abolition Movement in the United States.
William Lloyd Garrison (1805–1879) — Garrison was a prominent leader of the abolition movement in the 19th century and helped found the American Anti-Slavery Society.
Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865) — Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States. His election prompted the Secession Crisis, and his actions to preserve the Union contributed to the outbreak of the Civil War. Lincoln served throughout most of the conflict before an assassin’s bullet tragically cut his life short on April 15, 1865.
Lucretia Mott (1793–1880) — Mott was an early advocate for abolition, women’s rights, and Woman Suffrage. She was a member of the American Anti-Slavery Society in the 1830s and helped found the Philadelphia Anti-Slavery Society in 1833. After she met Elizabeth Cady Stanton in London, England, in 1840, she became involved in the women’s rights movement and helped organize the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848.
Thaddeus Stevens (1792–1868) — Stevens was one of the most influential Congressmen during the Civil War Era and Reconstruction Era. He was a dominant figure in the Republican Party and a leader of the Radical Republican faction. Stevens is most well-known for his role in developing the 14th Amendment, which guarantees equal protection under the law to citizens of the United States.
Sojourner Truth (c. 1797–1883) — Born into bondage in New York, escaped slave Sojourner Truth was a renowned champion for abolition, women’s rights, temperance, and prison reform during the 19th Century.
Harriet Tubman (c. 1822–1913) — Tubman was an escaped slave and a conductor on the Underground Railroad who made between eleven and thirteen trips to the South, escorting approximately seventy slaves to freedom. She was known as the “Moses of Her People” and was a prominent advocate for Women’s Rights and Civil Rights.
Groups
American Anti-Slavery Society — The American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS) was a leading Abolitionist organization, dedicated to eliminating slavery in the United States. The organization was founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on December 4, 1833.
New England Emigrant Aid Society — An organization founded by Eli Thayer to help Free-Soil settlers move to Kansas, settle there, and vote to make the territory free. It was known for supporting the antislavery movement in Kansas after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act.
Radical Republicans — A faction within the Republican Party that existed from the mid-1850s through the Reconstruction Era. They briefly held control of Congress after the Civil War and aimed to make significant changes in the South. Important leaders included Thaddeus Stevens in the House of Representatives and Charles Sumner in the Senate.
Underground Railroad — The Underground Railroad was a secret effort before the Civil War that helped runaway enslaved people escape to freedom in Canada or the far northern United States. It grew stronger in the 1830s as the Abolition Movement gained support and used railroad terms such as lines, conductors, stations, and freight. Its success depended heavily on the bravery of enslaved people and the aid of Abolitionists, free African Americans, Quakers, and former enslaved people, such as Harriet Tubman.
Events
Bacon’s Rebellion (1676–1677) — Bacon’s Rebellion was a violent uprising by colonists in Colonial Virginia against government officials and the upper class. Rebels led by Nathaniel Bacon briefly took control of the colony, but the movement collapsed after his death. The rebellion is most famous for contributing to a dramatic increase in the usage of slave labor in Virginia and for being the first uprising against English officials in the American Colonies.
Bleeding Kansas (1855–1861) — The term “Bleeding Kansas” refers to the violence and bloodshed that occurred in the Kansas Territory during the 1850s. Also known as the Kansas-Nebraska Border War.
John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry (1859) — John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry was an attempt to capture the Federal Arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Brown intended to seize weapons and distribute them to enslaved African Americans in the South, in hopes of establishing an independent republic for them. The raid failed, and Brown and his men were captured. In the weeks that followed, Brown was tried, convicted, and executed, ending his violent anti-slavery career. The raid intensified the sectional divide over slavery and pushed the nation closer to civil war.
Civil War (1861–1865) — The United States of America was divided from 1861 to 1865 in a devastating, destructive conflict known as the American Civil War. America was divided over economic issues that escalated into disagreements over States’ Rights and slavery, leading southern states to secede and form the Confederate States of America. The United States responded with force to maintain the union, and the Confederacy responded in kind.
Abraham Lincoln Assassination (April 14–15, 1865) — The Assassination of President Abraham Lincoln took place on April 14, 1865, when Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth shot Lincoln during a play at Ford’s Theater in Washington, D.C. Lincoln died from his wounds early the next morning. After a massive manhunt, Booth was shot and killed, and eight others were found guilty of conspiring to kill the President. On July 7, 1865, four of them were executed at Fort McNair, ending the ordeal of the first American President to be assassinated.
Legislation
Headright System (1618–1779) — The Headright System was established by the Virginia Company in 1618 as a way to increase immigration to Virginia and increase the workforce.
United States Constitution (1789) — The Constitution is the foundation of law and government in America. It outlines the structure of the government, its powers, and the Amendment Process. It also defines the relationships between the People, the Federal Government, and State Governments.
United States Constitution Amendments (1789–) — Amendments to the Constitution of the United States have been made 27 times since it was ratified on June 21, 1788. Article V of the Constitution grants authority to amend the Constitution and outlines the process for proposing and ratifying Amendments.
Fugitive Slave Act (1793) — The Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 required states to return fugitive slaves to other states from which they had fled. The law was enacted by Congress in reaction to a dispute between Pennsylvania and Virginia over the kidnapping of a black man in Pennsylvania by three Virginians. The act provided alleged fugitive slaves with no protection of habeas corpus, no right to trial by jury, and no right to testify on their own behalf.
Louisiana Purchase (1803) — In 1803, the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million and doubled the size of the nation.
Missouri Compromise (1820) — The Missouri Compromise comprised legislation passed by the U.S. Congress in 1820 that attempted to resolve sectional disputes over the extension of slavery in western territories of the United States.
Wilmot Proviso (1846) — Introduced by Democratic Congressman David Wilmot of Pennsylvania, the Wilmot Proviso would have banned the extension of slavery into any territories Mexico ceded to the U.S. after the Mexican-American War. Although never enacted by Congress, the Wilmot Proviso hastened the division of the American political landscape along sectional lines, ultimately contributing to the onset of the Civil War.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) — The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, also known as the Mexican Cession, was an agreement between the United States and Mexico that ended the Mexican-American War and transferred territory to the U.S.
Compromise of 1850 (1850) — The Compromise of 1850 was a collection of Congressional legislation proposed by Kentucky Senator Henry Clay to resolve sectional issues in the United States regarding slavery after the Mexican-American War.
Fugitive Slave Act (1850) — The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was passed by Congress as one provision of the Compromise of 1850. The harsh terms of the act angered many Northerners and contributed to the sectional division over slavery that led to the American Civil War.
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) — The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 was introduced by Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas to expedite the formation of new territories in the Louisiana Purchase west of Missouri.
Emancipation Proclamation (1863) — The Emancipation Proclamation was issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863. It stated that people held as slaves in areas that were in rebellion against the United States were free.
Thirteenth Amendment (1865) — The 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution achieved ratification by the states on December 6, 1865. The amendment abolished the practice of slavery in the United States — except as a punishment for a crime — and provided Congress with broad powers to ensure the enforcement of the amendment.
Fourteenth Amendment (1868) — Ratified in 1868, the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution was the second of the Reconstruction Amendments proposed by Congress and ratified by the states. It granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including former slaves.
Fifteenth Amendment (1869) — Approved by Congress on February 26, 1869, ratified by the states on February 3, 1870, and certified by Secretary of State Hamilton Fish on March 30, 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution affirmed that “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.”
Concepts
First Emancipation — Refers to the gradual end of slavery in the Northern States following the American Revolution.
Gradual Abolition — The process of ending slavery slowly through state laws that freed enslaved people over time rather than immediately. During and after the American Revolution, several Northern states adopted Gradual Abolition laws that often freed children born to enslaved mothers after they reached adulthood. These laws were part of the growing antislavery movement but also showed the limits of reform, since slavery continued for many people into the early 19th Century in the North and until the mid-1860s in the South.
Popular Sovereignty — A political theory that emerged from the Democratic Party in the 1840s as a potential solution to settle the question of whether to expand slavery into the Western Territories acquired by the United States under the Mexican Cession (1848). Under this theory, the inhabitants of a territory were given the right to choose between abolition and slavery by popular vote rather than Congress.
