Valley Forge

Overview

Following the Battle of White Marsh (December 5–8, 1777), General George Washington decided his army was unable to continue fighting, and the decision was made to spend the Winter of 1777–1778 at Valley Forge. After a difficult march from White Marsh, the army reached the plateau near Valley Creek and the Schuylkill River, where they remained for six months. During this time, the Continental Army’s endurance, discipline, and loyalty to Washington were severely tested. 

Upon arrival at Valley Forge, Washington had his men build crude log huts for shelter. Despite this, the men were often exposed to winter weather due to poor construction and a lack of clothing. Supply chain issues kept food, supplies, and clothing from reaching Valley Forge in a timely manner. This led to hunger and the spread of disease throughout the camp. In turn, hospitals became overcrowded with the sick and wounded. By the end of the winter, Nathanael Greene and Jeremiah Wadsworth had improved the supply chain, helping the army recover.

Meanwhile, Friedrich von Steuben arrived from Europe, joined the Continental Army, and introduced a new system of military training. Steuben created uniform drill regulations, trained a model company, emphasized marching in compact formations, and taught soldiers how to use the bayonet effectively. His efforts increased the army’s discipline, organization, and confidence. 

By May, the troops displayed their progress in a grand review celebrating the Franco-American Alliance. Afterward, Congress recognized Steuben’s work by appointing him Inspector General of the army with the rank of Major General. 

When Washington’s Army left Valley Forge in June 1778, it was no longer a desperate collection of suffering soldiers. It had become a more disciplined and capable fighting force, and many historians refer to it as the nation’s first professional army. 

After the British evacuated Philadelphia in June, Washington pursued them, fully confident that his army could challenge them in a large engagement. On June 28, Washington attacked the British Army near Monmouth Courthouse. Although the battle ended in a draw, the Americans held their ground and proved that the training they received at Valley Forge would allow them to compete with the British in open battle.

Essential Facts

• Dates: December 19, 1777—June 19, 1778.
• Location: Valley Forge, Pennsylvania.
• Key American Leaders: George Washington, Friedrich von Steuben, Nathanael Greene, Jeremiah Wadsworth.
• Key Events: Conway Cabal, Battle of Quinton’s Bridge, Battle of Hancock’s Bridge, Battle of Crooked Billet, Battle of Baren Hill, Battle of Monmouth.
• Part of: Philadelphia Campaign (1777-1778), American Revolutionary War.

Significance

The Winter at Valley Forge is important to American History because of how it transformed the Continental Army from an undisciplined collection of inexperienced soldiers into a professional army. It is also considered to be a turning point in the American Revolutionary War. Although the experience exposed serious weaknesses in supply, transportation, and military organization, the soldiers’ suffering became a symbol of the sacrifice and endurance associated with the Patriot Cause and the American war effort. Despite hunger, disease, and desertion, the army survived, improved, and gained confidence. Friedrich von Steuben’s training system transformed Washington’s troops into a disciplined and organized force capable of engaging British regulars in open battle. The army that emerged from Valley Forge was stronger, more disciplined, and better prepared for later campaigns, including the Battle of Monmouth and the operations that eventually led to victory at the Siege of Yorktown.

History

From Boston to Philadelphia

Following the Siege of Boston, British forces evacuated the city and moved northward toward Canada. General George Washington fully expected the British, who were led by General William Howe, to set their sights on invading New York and seizing control of New York City. To prepare for this, Washington moved his army to New York City and the surrounding area, including Long Island.

In July and August of 1776, British forces arrived at Staten Island, including a large naval force under the command of Admiral Richard Howe. Then, on August 27, they invaded Long Island and easily pushed Washington’s Army into Brooklyn Heights. Although Washington’s Army was able to escape to Manhattan Island, it was eventually pushed northward to White Plains and then into New Jersey. While British forces occupied New York City, General Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, who retreated across New Jersey, over the Delaware River, and into Pennsylvania.

By December 1776, the American war effort was in shambles. Despite Washington’s pleas for help to the members of Congress and various colonial Governors, he received very little support. Finally, reinforcements arrived in late December, giving Washington enough men to carry out bold attacks on Trenton and Princeton, which shocked the British and pushed them back toward New York City.

Washington’s Army remained at Morristown, New Jersey, for the remainder of the Winter of 1776–1777. During this time, American and British forces engaged in nearly 60 skirmishes as they fought for food and supplies. 

Meanwhile, Howe and British officials made plans for the 1777 campaign. Two large expeditions were approved — one led by Howe and the other by General John Burgoyne.

• Howe was tasked with capturing Philadelphia, the American capital.
• Burgoyne was tasked with capturing Albany to isolate New England from the rest of the colonies.

Howe’s forces landed at Head of Elk, Maryland, on August 25. Washington responded to this by marching southward to put his army between Howe and Philadelphia. This led to several small battles and a larger engagement at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11. The Americans were defeated and forced to retreat, which allowed Howe to capture Philadelphia on September 26.

Although fighting continued through October and November, the British eventually took control of the Delaware River. Despite this, American forces continued to harass the British, engaging them on December 7 at White Marsh and again on December 11 at Matson’s Ford and Black Horse Tavern.

Following the engagements on December 11, Washington tried to cross the Schuylkill River at Matson’s Ford through the use of a temporary bridge that was made out of wooden rails and nearly 40 wagons. The crossing was interrupted when a 3,500-strong British force under General Cornwallis appeared on the opposite hill while the Americans were in the middle of crossing. Washington ordered his men to retreat, destroyed the bridge, and returned his forces to White Marsh.

Afterward, Washington decided that his army was in no condition to continue the campaign. After convincing a delegation from Congress that he needed to find a place for his army to spend the winter, he met with his officers, who suggested various locations around Philadelphia. At first, the plan was to take the army to Wilmington, Delaware, but Pennsylvania leaders objected, arguing that the army needed to continue operations in hopes of freeing Philadelphia from British control. 

Washington countered by explaining the poor condition of his troops and pointed out that Pennsylvania had provided very little in terms of food and supplies to aid the war effort. Finally, it was decided that Washington’s Army would spend the winter at Valley Forge, roughly 20 miles northwest of Philadelphia.

AHC Notes

• Washington and his officers discussed the location for winter quarters on October 27, 1777, but failed to reach a decision.
• Washington ultimately chose Valley Forge, which may have been recommended by General Anthony Wayne, whose estate, “Waynesborough,” was nearby.
• Washington did not ignore the importance of Wilmington to the American supply lines or hospitals. He sent William Smallwood and two regiments to occupy the town. They stayed there until May 1778.

March to Gulph Mills

On December 12, the army marched three miles north to Gulph Mills and set up a temporary camp. Their tents and baggage remained at Trappe, which was 18 miles northwest of Gulph Mills.

• The men spent four days (December 12–16) and nights in snow and sleet without enough clothing or shelter.
• Many soldiers tried to cook small amounts of food or sleep in wet clothes on the snow.
• Thousands of soldiers slept without blankets on the frozen ground and endured freezing rain.

Washington waited three more days (December 16–19) for weather that would allow his soldiers, many of whom were barefoot, to march through the brutal conditions. The march resumed on December 19. Later that day, the first elements of Washington’s Army (roughly 11,000 men) arrived at Valley Forge.

Valley Forge Geography

Valley Forge took its name from an old forge located beside Valley Creek, a waterway that flowed into the Schuylkill River, which ran east-west at this location. The Valley Forge encampment was on the southern side of the Schuylkill River and primarily west of Valley Creek.

• The terrain rose more than 250 feet within two-fifths of a mile from Valley Creek.
• This led to a rolling wide, rolling plateau that overlooked the valley.
• The high ground was heavily forested with many kinds of trees.

AHC Notes

• Valley Forge’s distance from the city made it difficult to attack during the winter
• The high elevation allowed the Americans to see if British forces were advancing on the camp.

Camp Layout, Defensive Fortifications, and Housing

Upon arrival, Washington placed each brigade at locations along the plateau and ordered them to build log huts, providing measurements and other details.

• Each hut was designed to hold 12 soldiers.
• They measured 14 feet by 16 feet with log walls six and a half feet high.
• Clay filled the gaps between the logs, and the chimneys and fireplaces were lined with clay-covered wood.
• The roofs were made of wooden planks or slabs.
• The layout of the huts created rough roads across each smaller encampment.

Washington offered a $12 bonus to encourage the men to build their hut as quickly as possible. All of the building materials were collected from the surrounding forest, and the men cut trees, sawed logs, and dragged wood through the snow in order to complete their huts. The first group finished their hut in just two days. The rest of them were completed between December 25, 1777, and January 1, 1778. Despite Washington’s detailed instructions, most of the huts were poorly built and susceptible to the weather.

• Cold winds, rain, and snow entered through gaps in the walls and roofs.
• The interiors were prone to fill with smoke due to faulty fireplaces.
• Most of the huts had dirt floors and flooded easily.

Washington lived in his tent, known as his “Marquee,” until the huts were completed and his men had shelter. Afterward, he moved into a stone house owned by Isaac Potts on the west end of the camp. The Marquee was set up outside of the house, and Washington often used it for meetings with his officers. Most of his officers followed suit and took shelter in homes around Valley Forge.

On the edges of the camp, defensive fortifications were constructed. These, along with natural barriers, helped protect it in the event of a British attack:

• North — The northern side was protected by the Schuylkill River.
• East — The eastern side was protected by Valley Creek.
• South — A line of entrenchments stood along the southern edge of the rolling plateau.
• West — The western end had more entrenchments and abatis, along with several redoubts (earthen forts) and redans (v-shaped earthworks).

AHC Notes

• There were more than 1,000 huts built at Valley Forge.
• Some sources indicate the huts took until mid-January to complete.

Supply Chain Breakdowns

The Quartermaster Department of the Continental Army was responsible for procuring and organizing transportation for supplies and provisions. The Commissary Department and the Clothier Department were responsible for procuring the food and clothing that the army needed. 

Unfortunately, Congress dictated how much these departments could pay for these items and also restricted who could work as teamsters to drive the wagons that were necessary for transportation. These requirements made it difficult for the army’s agents to conduct their business, and they often neglected their duties.

• Quartermaster General Thomas Mifflin resigned in October 1777, due to his involvement in a plot to remove Washington as Commander-in-Chief. The position remained vacant until Nathanael Greene was appointed in March 1778.
• Commissary General Joseph Trumbull resigned in the summer of 1777. William Buchanan followed him but struggled, leading to his removal. Jeremiah Wadsworth was appointed to the position in April 1778.
• Clothier General James Mease was in charge of the Clothing Department and did so poorly that the men referred to the lack of clothing as “the Meases.” Mease resigned on December 16, 1777.

The troops were already hungry and worn out from the difficult campaign when they arrived at Valley Forge, and many of them lacked proper clothing and blankets. The situation did not improve during most of their time at Valley Forge. This was primarily due to the failure of the Quartermaster Department to arrange proper transportation:

• Barrels of shoes, stockings, and clothing sat unused along roads and in woods between American supply depots and Valley Forge.
• Food meant for the men at Valley Forge often spoiled due to a shortage of wagons for transportation.

Lack of clothing and blankets led to frostbite, which often required amputations. It is estimated that 75% of the army was unfit for duty throughout the winter.

• Nathanael Greene wrote that half the troops had no breeches, shoes, or stockings, while thousands were left without blankets.
• Lafayette wrote that the soldiers lacked coats, hats, shirts, and shoes.
• On December 20, 1777, James Mitchell Varnum reported that his men had gone two days without meat and three days without bread.

Due to the lack of food, the men started making small cakes out of nothing but flour and water. These were baked on hot stones and called “fire-cakes.” According to some accounts, many of the men had nothing more than water and fire-cakes for their meals as the winter dragged on.

• Some states sent food, supplies, and clothing to Valley Forge, but only for distribution among their own men.
• Regiments from larger states often had more than those from smaller states.
• According to some accounts, men without shoes would stand on their hats when necessary.

Clean water was also in short supply, due in part to the camp’s elevated location. All of the natural waterways were at least half a mile away. There was a creek near the camp, but the water became polluted.

Animals used by the army also suffered at Valley Forge due to the lack of fresh food and water. It is estimated that at least 1,500 horses died during the winter.

Unsanitary Conditions at Valley Forge

Unsanitary conditions at Valley Forge led to the spread of diseases among the men, including typhus, dysentery, and smallpox. By this time, Washington had inoculated some of his troops against smallpox, but typhus was an infectious disease that the army’s doctors knew little about.

• Typhus was spread through fleas, lice, and mites that infected the camp.
• Doctors did not know what caused typhus or how to treat it.
• Roughly 4,000 men were inoculated against smallpox at Valley Forge.

Understaffed, Overcrowded Hospitals

A large hospital was established in Yellow Springs, Pennsylvania, while smaller ones were established in Ephrata, Bethlehem, Lititz, and other places. These hospitals were usually in a small house or building. They lacked enough qualified doctors to begin with and were overwhelmed by caring for the wounded from the campaign’s battles.

• Ephrata housed 500 Brandywine casualties, and some were forced to stay in tents.
• Typhus spread through the Bethlehem hospital, and most of the staff became sick.
• The Lititz hospital staff were also infected with typhus.

By late December, nearly 4,000 men in Washington’s Army were identified as being sick and unable to perform their duties. In the six months the army spent at Valley Forge, an estimated 1,800 to 1,900 men died.

Disorderly Conduct

The terrible conditions at Valley Forge led to breakdowns in discipline, including:

• Officers and their men engaged in drinking and gambling, which sometimes led to fighting.
• Groups of men carrying out raids in the countryside, without Washington’s permission.

Washington responded to the lack of discipline with harsh punishments. Some men received lashes, and a few were executed for desertion.

The Conway Cabal

During the winter at Valley Forge, Washington encountered opposition to his leadership in what is known as the “Conway Cabal.” This challenge involved critics within both the Continental Army and the Second Continental Congress who questioned his leadership capabilities and sought to remove him from his position as Commander-in-Chief.

• The conspiracy was triggered by a letter General Thomas Conway sent to General Horatio Gates, in which Conway criticized Washington.
• Members of Congress who wanted to replace Washington with Gates successfully pushed to have Gates appointed President of the Board of War and Conway as Inspector General of the Continental Army.
• Congress organized a second invasion of Canada and assigned the command to Lafayette. This was an attempt to shift Lafayette’s loyalty away from Washington. However, Lafayette abandoned the mission due to a lack of men and resources and remained with Washington.
• Washington remained in command after Conway’s original letter was exposed, and Lafayette insisted that France would not form an alliance with the United States if Washington was replaced.

Starvation and Mutiny

By mid-February 1778, some of the men at Valley Forge were desperate for food. On February 13, General William Alexander, Lord Stirling, wrote to Washington and warned him that the situation was bordering on mutiny, “The Complaints of the want of provisions and forrage are become universal and Violent, every officer speaks of it with dread of the probable Consequences.”

Two days later, on February 15, Colonel Ebenezer Brewster’s 12th Massachusetts regiment marched to General John Patterson’s headquarters. This incident was reported to Congress by Francis Dana, who said, “Sunday morning Colonel Brewer’s regiment rose in a body and proceeded to General Patterson’s quarters, in whose brigade they are, laid before him their complaints, and threatened to quit the army. By a prudent conduct he quieted them, but was under a necessity of permitting them to go out of camp to purchase meat as far as their money would answer, and to give their certificates for the other, and he would pay for it. The same spirit was rising in other regiments, but has been happily suppressed for the present by the prudence of some of their officers.”

On February 16, 1778, Washington wrote to Congress, saying “For some days past, there has been little less than a famine in camp. A part of the army has been a week without any kind of meat, and the rest for three or four days. Despite being naked and starving, we cannot help but admire the soldiers’ remarkable patience and loyalty.”

Desertions at Valley Forge

As the winter continued and the men’s suffering increased, death and desertions reduced the number of troops in the Valley Forge encampment. By the spring of 1778, Washington was left with somewhere between 5,000 and 6,000 troops, and only half of them were fit for duty.

• According to some sources, men deserted in groups of “ten to fifty at a time.”
• Large numbers went to Philadelphia, where they sold their weapons for food. Some even volunteered to join the British Army.
• Joseph Galloway reported that 2,300 deserters came to his office in Philadelphia, many of whom were foreign-born. 50% were Irish, 25% were English or Scottish, and the rest were Americans.

Efforts to recruit new soldiers started in the spring, but it was difficult to convince men to volunteer, knowing the condition of the army and the lack of food, supplies, and clothing.

AHC Notes

• In December 1777, hundreds of officers in the Continental Army submitted their resignations.
• These departures actually helped improve the quality of the officer corps.
• Officers who remained with the army were awarded on May 15, 1778, when Congress announced they would receive half-pay for seven years following the end of the war.
• Many historians believe that Howe missed another opportunity to destroy Washington’s Army by not attacking it at Valley Forge when so many of the American soldiers were weak and sick.

The Forage War of the Winter of 1778

To help deal with the lack of food, both Washington and Howe organized foraging expeditions. The frequency of these escalated in January 1778 and led to several small skirmishes on the north side of Philadelphia, where General James Lacey and units from the Pennsylvania Militia were stationed. Lacey and his men were given two tasks:

1. Engage British foraging parties that were carrying out raids across the countryside.
2. Seize food and supplies that local farmers were trying to transport into Philadelphia to sell to the British.

Despite some success in stopping local farmers and seizing their goods, Lacey struggled to stop the British in raids in January and February due to a shortage of soldiers. However, in mid-February, Washington decided to send General Anthony Wayne on a foraging expedition in New Jersey.

On February 19, Wayne led his expedition out of Valley Forge. He was able to gather much-needed provisions, including 500 head of cattle, earning him the nickname “The Drover.” Meanwhile, Henry “Light-Horse Harry” Lee and Allen McLane also led foraging expeditions.

• Lee raided Delaware and seized cattle intended for the British Army.
• McLane operated freely in territory outside the British lines, where he acquired supplies from local farmers, harassed British foraging expeditions, and scouted British movements.

General Howe responded to Wayne’s expedition by redirecting his own foraging missions to the same area in New Jersey. Not only did he hope to find food and supplies, but he also sought to have his men engage and destroy Wayne’s command.

• The first group included roughly 4,000 troops led by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Abercromby and Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Sterling.
• The inhabitants offered little resistance, and the New Jersey Militia rarely turned out to stop the raids.

Martha Washington at Valley Forge

Martha Washington arrived at Valley Forge in February. She played an important role in overseeing social activities in the camp and organizing the officers’ wives to mend clothes and provide support as nurses in the hospitals.

Steuben Becomes Inspector General

Another issue plaguing Washington was the lack of proper training among many of his soldiers. Although many of them had served in the army for one or two years, most of them knew very little about how to fight, other than to fire their weapons on command. 

• Many did not know how to form columns or how to deploy in battle lines.
• They lacked training in how to move and maneuver on the march and in combat.

At the time, there were no documented drills or proper military instructions. This situation changed in February 1778 with the arrival of Friedrich von Steuben, who came from a Prussian military family and was a veteran of the Seven Years’ War. He met Benjamin Franklin and Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais in Paris in 1777.

• Franklin provided Steuben with a letter of recommendation, as did Silas Deane.
• Beaumarchais provided him with funds from his company, Roderique, Hortalez & Cie.

Steuben left France on September 26, 1777, and arrived at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on December 1. He spent several weeks in Boston and then traveled to York, Pennsylvania, to meet with Congress.

He met with Congress for the first time around February 5, where he introduced himself as Friedrich William Augustus Henry Ferdinand, Baron Steuben, who had served as a Lieutenant General under Frederick the Great. 

Some members of Congress were skeptical about allowing foreign-born men to serve as officers in the Continental Army. However, Steuben offered to serve with no rank or pay, asking Congress to only reimburse him for expenses. He told the delegates that he would provide whatever service Washington felt he was suited for. The committee that interviewed him accepted his offer and sent him to Valley Forge to join Washington.

AHC Notes

• Prior to the British occupation of Philadelphia, the members of Congress fled and relocated to York.
• Steuben fabricated much of his background as an officer and served no higher than the rank of Captain. He was not an aristocrat; he simply referred to himself as “Baron.”
• Despite these exaggerations, he proved to be a skilled leader and is celebrated for his contributions to the development of the professional Continental Army and the American war effort.
• Steuben did not speak English and relied on translators to communicate with the Americans.

Steuben arrived at Valley Forge on February 23, where he met with Washington, who asked him to serve as Inspector General and train the troops. Steuben agreed to this and then went out to review the conditions of the camp and the troops. What he found was an alarming lack of military discipline throughout the camp:

• Officer uniforms were inconsistent, and many of them were not keeping accurate records of the men under their command.
• The structure of regiments was inconsistent, while drills and training varied among them.
• The weapons issued to each soldier were inconsistent, and muskets were not being properly cared for, which led them to become rusty and unusable. Many of the men also lacked bayonets.

Despite these issues, Steuben praised the Americans for character and for enduring the hardships they had experienced at Valley Forge.

Steuben’s System

Steuben went to work on devising a single, comprehensive set of drills for the officers to use to train their men. His system was based on the Prussian model, which he was familiar with, but he made adjustments to suit the needs of the Continental Army.

• Steuben’s aide, Pierre Duponceau, translated the rules into English.
• John Laurens and Alexander Hamilton refined the English versions.
• Steuben memorized the sound of the English version of each command and practiced them with the help of Laurens and Hamilton.
• This allowed Steuben to oversee and conduct drills in person.

There was no printing press at Valley Forge, so the lessons and instructions had to be written by hand. Steuben wrote lessons on Monday and then had them translated. By Wednesday, they were distributed to the officers, who then copied them into their orderly books.

To test and perfect his system, Steuben created a “model company” of 100 men who were chosen from different regiments. He would literally show the men how a soldier should stand and move, and had the men follow his example.

• Steuben used pantomime to show the correct stances and movements.
• He corrected mistakes one by one through demonstration.
• Steuben taught the men how to properly march and organize lines.
• He drilled them on the basic movements of a soldier, including halting, about-facing, and marching backward.

Steuben trained the model company by dividing it into smaller squads led by an officer. He would have one squad go through the drills, while the others watched. This allowed him to correct one officer while the others observed. When each squad was done working through the drills, he would assemble the full model company and run it through the drills.

Once the model company knew the drills, he taught the men how to properly use their weapons and care for them. This included showing them how to fix bayonets and execute a bayonet charge.

Steuben was very demanding and often frustrated by mistakes, some of which were caused by his mispronunciation of the English commands he had memorized. He was known to curse frequently and loudly. While the men did not always understand what he was saying, they found it amusing, and it became one of the things the men liked about him.

• Captain Benjamin Walker, who spoke French, helped interpret Steuben’s instructions (and cursing).
• Walker became one of Steuben’s permanent aides.

AHC Notes

• Steuben complained that Americans always wanted him to explain things before they would follow orders, whereas European soldiers followed orders without question.
• Steuben’s system was officially called Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States. It is commonly referred to as the “Blue Book.”
• The entire system was used by the United States Army until 1814, and portions were used during the Mexican-American War.

Greene Becomes Quartermaster General

Washington was also determined to resolve the ongoing issues within the Quartermaster Department. To assist with this, Congress appointed General Nathanael Greene as Quartermaster General on March 2, 1778.

• Unlike most of Washington’s staff officers, Greene was allowed to keep his field command and lead troops in battle. Despite this, Greene did not want the position because he felt it would limit his military service.
• On March 28, 1778, he wrote to General Alexander McDougall expressing frustration over his new role.

Despite his objections, Greene accepted the role and made significant changes to American foraging efforts. He instructed the officers who led the expeditions to “Forage the country naked!” and seize everything they could. He established rules to make the expeditions more effective:

• Foragers were to take all horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, and all types of forage.
• They were to seize wagons needed to carry the forage.
• If hay or corn could not be transported, Greene ordered it burned.
• Foragers issued receipts for seized items with a promise of future payment.

However, he quickly learned that the entire region was lacking in food and supplies. Either everything had already been taken by the British, or civilians were unwilling to provide for the army and hid everything they could.

State of Washington’s Army

By early March, Washington only had about 4,000 troops fit for duty. This dropped to 3,300 on March 7, due to illness or lack of shoes or clothes.

Quinton’s Bridge and Hancock’s Bridge

On March 17, 1778, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Mawhood and Major John Graves Simcoe left Philadelphia with a large British foraging expedition. Howe tasked them with gathering food and supplies near Salem, New Jersey, and, if possible, engaging Wayne.

• Wayne responded by returning to Valley Forge.
• He left men from the New Jersey Militia at two river crossings at Alloway Creek: Quinton’s Bridge and Hancock’s Bridge.
• He wanted to keep Mawhood from crossing the creek and following him.
• Colonel Asher Holmes and 300 militiamen guarded Quinton’s Bridge.
• Colonel Elijah Hand also gathered New Jersey Militia forces in response to Mawhood’s arrival.

Mawhood started his foraging expedition on March 18. To protect the foragers, he carried out an attack on the New Jersey Militia guarding Quinton’s Bridge. Mawhood set up an ambush around the area and then sent a small force toward the bridge. When the Americans saw them, they fired and pushed the British back. The Americans responded by crossing the bridge and pursuing the British, whom they thought were retreating. The reality was that the British were drawing the Americans into a trap. 

• When the Americans were far enough from the bridge, the British emerged from several hiding places and attacked. 
• The Americans fled, but found the path over the bridge was blocked. Many of them tried to swim across Alloway Creek to safety, but a good number drowned. 
• The Americans were saved by the arrival of Colonel Elijah Hand, who stopped the British attack. 
• Mawhood decided the American position was too strong to attack, so he withdrew and returned to Salem.

Three days later, on March 21, Mawhood sent Simcoe to attack the New Jersey Militia who were in the small village around Hancock’s Bridge. Mawhood’s intelligence indicated there were at least 400 militiamen there; however, all but 20 to 30 left the village on March 20 and moved to another location.

• Simcoe and his men carried out a bayonet attack.
• The Americans were sleeping when the attack started and were taken by surprise.
• Simcoe’s men killed nearly everyone they encountered in the village, including some Loyalists.

AHC Notes

• In the aftermath of both battles, Simcoe and his men, many of whom were New Jersey Loyalists, were accused of carrying out massacres due to the brutal nature of the attacks and rumors that they offered “no quarter,” meaning his men were to ignore any Americans who offered to surrender.
• This reputation for brutality contributed to more accusations that his men were guilty of committing a massacre after the Battle of Crooked Billet.

Steuben Expands His Training to the Full Army

On March 24, 1778, Steuben expanded his training program to the entire army. Each regiment was divided into smaller squads of 20 men and followed the same training process as the model company. 

During this time, Steuben emphasized bayonet training, which was necessary for engaging British forces in a large engagement. He also focused on ensuring the men stopped marching in single file, which was common and led to columns stretching out much longer than necessary. Instead, he focused on having them march in “compact masses with steadiness and without losing distance.”

• Single-file columns slowed the time needed to form lines before battle.
• This affected the army at Brandywine and Germantown, where troops arrived in disorder.
• In April, Washington issued an order banning marching in single file.

Within a month, Steuben had the soldiers marching with a regular step, and he successfully maneuvered 10–12 battalions with the precision of a single company.

Supply Chain Improvements

After Greene took over as Quartermaster General, he worked to improve conditions by focusing on increasing access to horses and wagons and fixing roads, so that other departments could transport food, supplies, and clothing to Valley Forge. He established a corps of wagoners to carry out these tasks.

• Jeremiah Wadsworth, the Commissary General, worked to collect food and clothing.
• Supplies that once had to be destroyed due to lack of transport could now reach the camp.
• By spring, each soldier was receiving a daily allowance of bread, beef, fish or pork, beans, and a gill of whisky.

Increasing Morale

The morale of the soldiers at Valley Forge increased due to the confidence that Steuben’s training gave them and the improved flow of food, supplies, and clothing. 

In April 1778, the onset of warmer weather brought fish (American Shad) to the Schuylkill River, which surprised the men and served as an extra food source. This improved the health of the men at Valley Forge, preparing them for the 1778 campaign.

• Soldiers caught thousands of shad and ate large quantities.
• Hundreds of barrels of shad were salted and stored for later use.
• Soldiers’ health improved as they ate better food and regained muscle and energy.

Crooked Billet

On May 1, 1778, John Graves Simcoe and the Queen’s Rangers carried out a surprise attack on Lacey and the Pennsylvania Militia at Crooked Billet Tavern. The Americans were caught off guard and routed. The survivors fled into some woods near the tavern, leaving behind supplies and provisions, which the British seized.

• Simcoe’s men pursued the Americans for at least two miles.
• Lacey circled back toward Crooked Billet, and Simcoe called off the pursuit.
• When Lacey arrived at Crooked Billet, he found that many of his wounded men had been killed and some appeared to have been burned alive by Simcoe’s men.

Following the battle, Lacey was removed from command, and Washington sent General William Maxwell and his light infantry from Valley Forge to defend the area northwest of Philadelphia.

Congress Promotes Steuben

Congress took notice of Steuben’s efforts and success and officially appointed him as Inspector General of the Continental Army on May 5, 1778. Although he had offered to serve with no rank or pay, Congress awarded him the rank of Major General and a salary that was retroactive to the day he first joined the army.

• Training and exercises continued through May and into mid-June.
• The British evacuation of Philadelphia required the army to take the field.
• By this time, the Continental Army was functioning as a professional force.
• Much of this change was due to Steuben’s leadership.

Valley Forge Celebrates the Franco-American Alliance

On February 6, 1778, the United States and France signed two treaties, forming the Franco-American Alliance. News of the alliance reached Valley Forge in early May, and Washington and his men celebrated by displaying their improved skills on May 6:

• The regiments marched and formed battle lines with quickness and precision.
• They fired a feu de joie, which included three volleys of musket fire from the entire army and three rounds of artillery fire. Each round was accompanied by a cheer from the men. 
• Private Elijah Fisher said they shouted: “three Chears for the King of France, three for the Friendly Powers of Europe, and three Chears for the Thirteen United States of Amarica.”

Clinton Succeeds Howe

General Henry Clinton succeeded William Howe as Commander-in-Chief of British Forces in North America on May 7, 1778. Due to the American alliance with France, Clinton’s superiors in London decided to evacuate Philadelphia and ordered him to return to New York City. Beyond this, he was to send an expedition to Georgia as the opening move of the British strategy to subdue the South.

Barren Hill

As spring approached, Washington sought to gather information on the British positions in and around Philadelphia. Marquis de Lafayette, in his first field command, took 2,200 men on the scouting mission and camped at Barren Hill, near Chestnut Hill, northwest of Germantown. General Clinton was alerted to Lafayette’s presence and sent two columns to trap him.

• General James Grant led 5-6,000 troops.
• General Howe, who was still in Philadelphia, led another 10,000 men. It was his last engagement before he left for England.

Lafayette was alerted to the attack, informed Washington, and prepared to withdraw. The British attacked on the morning of May 20, 1778, and American militia forces guarding the camp fled.

• Lafayette sent a small force forward to engage the British and delay their advance.
• He evacuated the rest of his men via a road that concealed them from the British.
• He sent small patrols to fire on the British, tricking them into thinking he had more men and was preparing to engage them in a full battle.
• The Americans were able to escape with limited casualties.

AHC Note

• Lafayette’s Continental troops performed well, carried out his orders, and retreated in an orderly fashion. Their performance is widely credited to Steuben’s training.

Carlisle Peace Commission

Following Burgoyne’s defeat at Saratoga, British officials sent peace commissioners, led by Frederick Howard, fifth Earl of Carlisle, to Philadelphia. The “Carlisle Commission” intended to restore relations between the North American colonies and Great Britain to what they were before 1763.

• The commission arrived in Philadelphia on June 6, 1778.
• Congress informed Carlisle it would only negotiate British withdrawal and recognition of American independence.
• The negotiations failed, and the commissioners eventually returned to England in November 1778.

Clinton Plans to Leave Philadelphia

After it was announced that British forces were leaving Philadelphia, Loyalists in the city and in the Delaware Valley were outraged, and some demanded safe passage to New York City. Because of this and the threat of the French Navy on the open seas, General Clinton decided the Loyalists would sail to New York City on Admiral Richard Howe’s ships, and the army would march overland, through New Jersey.

Washington Responds

In late May, Washington was informed that Clinton was preparing to mobilize his forces. Washington believed that Clinton was determined to attack American forces at Wilmington or march through New Jersey to New York City. To prepare for a march through New Jersey, Washington:

• Ordered General Philemon Dickinson to call out the New Jersey Militia and sent General William Maxwell and his New Jersey Continentals to Mount Holly, New Jersey.
• Instructed both to destroy bridges and block roads to slow the British advance.

Eventually, Washington believed it was most likely that Clinton would march northward, because the British did not have enough ships at the time to move the entire army by water. He started preparing to leave Valley Forge and pursue Clinton into New Jersey.

• Washington reviewed maps of the region and predicted the route he thought Clinton would take, and identified areas where he thought he could stop him at Cranbury, New Jersey.
• The march to Cranbury was seven to eight miles longer for the Americans, so Washington planned to move as quickly as he could to catch Clinton.

Clinton Marches into New Jersey

On June 17, 1778, Clinton’s army started leaving Philadelphia. By June 18, his entire army had crossed the Delaware River and camped at Haddonfield, New Jersey. There, Clinton organized his men into two divisions, led by Charles Cornwallis and Wilhelm von Knyphausen. The arrangement of the column was:

• Knyphausen first escorted the baggage (supply wagons).
• Clinton was in the middle, leading the main column.
• Cornwallis was last, commanding the rear guard.

The army moved slowly and had to account for the movements of American forces harassing it, including Philemon Dickinson (New Jersey Militia) and Daniel Morgan (Continental Soldiers). Clinton decided to march toward Sandy Hook in Monmouth County so he could ferry his troops over to Manhattan Island. Along the way, his men burned and looted homes and farms.

Washington’s Army Leaves Valley Forge

Around 11:30 a.m. on June 18, 1778, a rider from Philadelphia delivered the news to Washington that the British had departed the city. Washington responded immediately and issued orders for the army to prepare to march.

By this time, General Charles Lee had returned to the army via a prisoner exchange, and his troops were the first to leave Valley Forge early in the afternoon of June 18. General Anthony Wayne and his troops followed around 3:00 p.m. The rest of the army left Valley Forge around 5:00 a.m. on June 19.

• The army emerged as more of a professional army due to the efforts of Washington, Steuben, Greene, and Wadsworth.
• The army had more than 13,500 men enlisted, and it is believed that 11,000 to 12,000 were with Washington when the army started its pursuit of Clinton.

Washington’s Army crossed the Delaware River at Coryell’s Ferry and completed the maneuver on June 23. That night, it camped at Hopewell, about 15 miles west of Cranbury.

Clinton at Allentown

Meanwhile, the British camped at Allentown, 15 miles east of Hopewell and 10 miles south of Cranbury. American forces followed the British to Allentown:

• Maxwell and Dickinson followed the left flank and destroyed bridges and blocked roads.
• General Charles Scott harassed the rear and left flank.
• John Cadwalader harassed the rear.
• Daniel Morgan harassed the right flank.

Clinton intended to march to New Brunswick and then to Staten Island; however, Washington was in a position to reach New Brunswick first. Because of this, Clinton changed his route and decided to march east to Sandy Hook. Clinton believed it was more important to move the army to New York than it was to engage Washington in battle, and the new route moved him further away from Washington.

Washington’s Council of War

On June 24, 1778, Washington held a Council of War with his officers. 

• Lee wanted to avoid a full-scale engagement and suggested an attack on the rear of Clinton’s column. Henry Knox and William Alexander agreed with Lee’s assessment.
• Nathanael Greene, Anthony Wayne, and Lafayette argued for a full-scale attack.

They compromised and decided that a strong advance force would attack the British rear guard, but there would be no general attack on the main column unless the opportunity presented itself.

British March to Monmouth Court House

On the morning of June 25, 1778, the British started their 19-mile march to Monmouth Court House. Before leaving, Clinton reorganized his forces into one column, but two groups:

• Clinton placed Knyphausen in command of the first group, the advance force.
• The British supply wagons, stretching 12 miles, followed Knyphausen.
• The second group of the army marched behind the baggage train under Cornwallis.
• Clinton rode with Cornwallis.

The march was completed under extreme heat that reached 100 degrees. Many of the men collapsed from the weight of their clothing and equipment, and some died of sunstroke. The British started arriving at Monmouth Court House during the afternoon of June 26. That night, a thunderstorm opened up, but did little to reduce the heat. The British remained at Monmouth Court House the next day due to intense heat and the men’s exhaustion.

American March to Monmouth Court House

Washington left Hopewell on June 25, 1778, and marched to Rocky Hill and Kingston, about 25 miles northwest of Monmouth Court House. Here, Washington held another council of war:

• He suggested sending a large advance force ahead to start the attack. This force would include the commands of Anthony Wayne, Enoch Poor, James Mitchell Varnum, Scott, Maxwell, Morgan, Dickinson, and others. 
• Washington offered the overall command of this advance force to Charles Lee.

At first, Lee declined, suggesting it was beneath him and that Lafayette should lead it. Lafayette accepted and set out to organize his troops. When Lee realized the advance force was nearly 7,000 men, much larger than he had anticipated, he changed his mind and told Washington he would command it. Washington agreed due to Lee’s experience, even though Lee disagreed with the overall plan to attack. 

The advance force gathered at Englishtown,  about five miles northwest of Monmouth Court House. Meanwhile, the rest of the army marched to Cranbury on the morning of June 26, five miles from Englishtown.

• Lee’s advance force was to attack the rear of the British column on June 28.
• Washington told Lee he would remain nearby with the rest of the army, ready to provide reinforcements as needed.

Battle of Monmouth Court House

Before dawn on the 28th, British forces started leaving Monmouth Court House. However, Lee and the advance force did not move until around 6:00 a.m. By then, the entire British Army was on the road, with General Cornwallis and his men defending the rear of the column. 

• Lee finally attacked around 10:00, but the effort was disorganized and ineffective because Lee failed to develop a clear plan of attack.
• Clinton took some of his men, rode back toward Monmouth Court House, and attacked Lee, taking him by surprise.

Although Lee had 7,000 men and artillery under his command, he ordered them to retreat, which gave Cornwallis time to regroup. Soon after, Washington received reports that Lee’s attack was in disarray and that he was retreating. 

• Washington was confused and rode ahead.
• He met Lee on the road and demanded an explanation.
• At first, Lee struggled to explain and then blamed the retreat on faulty intelligence and the other officers.
• Outraged at Lee’s failure, Washington exploded and removed him from command on the spot.

Clinton’s forces continued to pursue while Washington worked to restore order and reorganize Lee’s men.

• Washington placed Nathanael Greene and his division on his right. 
• In the center, he placed Anthony Wayne, his men, and some of Lee’s men. 
• On his left, he placed William Alexander, Lord Stirling, and his division. 
• He put the reserve under the command of Lafayette, who took command of the rest of Lee’s men.

The two armies attacked and counterattacked throughout the day, and an artillery duel started around 4:00:

• Clinton deployed 16 cannons and opened fire on the American lines, prompting a return barrage from the American artillery.
• During this duel, Mary Ludwig Hays carried water to some of the artillerymen, including her husband. This earned her the nickname “Molly Pitcher.”

It was a long, hot day. By 5:00, the men were exhausted. Some had even died from heat exhaustion. Clinton ended the ground attacks, but the artillery duel continued. Washington tried to launch a ground assault, but the men were unable to respond due to fatigue.

• Fighting continued across the battlefield until around 7:30.
• Both sides fell back to their lines.
• Washington prepared to fight again the next day.
• Clinton rested his troops and withdrew the next morning, resuming the march to New York City.
• He arrived in New York City on July 5, 1778.

Technically, the battle was a draw, but the Continental Army’s training during the Winter at Valley Forge allowed it to hold its own with the well-trained British Army on the open field at Monmouth Court House.

Washington Returns to New York

After the Battle of Monmouth, the war in the Northern Theater came to a standstill as British forces continued to occupy New York City and Canada. To keep them contained in those areas, Washington returned to White Plains, New York, assessed the condition of his men, and established a line of strategic defenses surrounding New York City. From north to south, the line stretched from:

• Fairfield, Connecticut, westward to Westchester County, New York.
• West, across the Hudson River Highlands.
• South to the New York-New Jersey border.
• Southwest to Brunswick and southeast to Perth Amboy in New Jersey.

AP US History

Definition

Winter at Valley Forge (1777–1778) — The Continental Army occupied Valley Forge during the winter of 1777–1778 after the British capture of Philadelphia. The march to the encampment exposed the soldiers to freezing weather, hunger, and severe shortages of shoes and clothing, leading Washington to remark that the army could be tracked by the blood of the soldiers’ feet. During the winter, the army suffered from famine, disease, and desertion while building log huts and defensive works around the camp. Foraging expeditions under Nathanael Greene attempted to supply the army, while Baron Friedrich von Steuben introduced a drill system that transformed the Continentals into a more professional army before it left Valley Forge in June 1778. Soon after, Washington’s Army engaged the British at Monmouth Court House and held its own in the open field, successfully displaying the organization and discipline instilled at Valley Forge.

Alignment

The Winter at Valley Forge is part of the following units, topics, and chapters in the AP US History curriculum:

• The American Revolution (Unit 3.5) 
• America Secedes from the Empire (1775–1783)

Appendix

Lossing’s Account of Valley Forge

AHC Note — This account of the Winter at Valley Forge is from Harper’s Encyclopaedia of United States History from 458 A. D. to 1909, Based Upon the Plan of Benson John Lossing (1905), edited by Woodrow Wilson.

Washington’s army encamped at Whitemarsh, in a beautiful valley about 14 miles from Philadelphia, where he remained until Dec. 11, 1777, and proceeded with his half-clad, half-bare-footed soldiers to Valley Forge, about 20 miles northward from Philadelphia. These numbered about 11,000 men, of whom not more than 7,000 were fit for field duty.

The place was chosen because it was farther from the danger of sudden attacks from the foe, and where he might more easily afford protection for the Congress sitting at York. Bloodstains, made by the lacerated feet of his barefooted soldiers, marked the line of their march to Valley Forge.

There, upon the slopes of a narrow valley on the borders of the winding Schuylkill, they were encamped, with no shelter but rude log huts which they built themselves. The winter that ensued was severe. The soldiers shivered with cold and starved with hunger, and there their genuine patriotism was fully tested.

The British under Howe had full possession of Philadelphia and of the Delaware below, and Pennsylvania was divided among its people and in its legislature by political factions. 

General uneasiness prevailed; and when Washington sought refuge at Valley Forge, the Pennsylvania legislature adopted a remonstrance against that measure. To this cruel missive Washington replied, after censuring the quartermaster-general (Mifflin), a Pennsylvanian, for neglect of duty: 

“For the want of a two-days supply of provisions, an opportunity scarcely ever offered of taking an advantage of the enemy that has not been either totally obstructed or greatly impeded. Men are confined in hospitals or in farmers’ houses for want of shoes. We have this day [Dec. 23] no less than 2,873 men in camp unfit for duty because they are barefooted and otherwise naked. Our whole strength in Continental troops amounts to no more than 8,200 in camp fit for duty. Since the 4th inst., our numbers fit for duty, from hardships and exposures, have decreased nearly 2,000 men. Numbers are still obliged to sit all night by fires. Gentlemen reprobate going into winter-quarters as much as if they thought the soldiers were made of sticks or stones. I can assure those gentlemen that it is a much easier and less distressing thing to draw remonstrances in a comfortable room by a good fireside than to occupy a cold, bleak hill, and sleep under frost and snow without clothes or blankets. However, although they seem to have little feeling for the naked and distressed soldiers, I feel super abundantly for them; and from my soul I pity those miseries which it is neither in my power to relieve nor prevent.”

At the same time, the British army was made as weak by indulgence in the city as were the American soldiers by physical privations, and Franklin was justified in saying, “Howe did not take Philadelphia; Philadelphia took Howe.”

At Valley Forge, Baron Steuben entered upon his duties as inspector-general of the Continental Army. 

There, the joyful news reached the American army of a treaty of alliance with France. It was promulgated by Washington in general orders on May 6, 1778. He set apart the next day as one of rejoicing and grateful acknowledgment of the divine goodness in raising up a powerful friend “in of the princes of the earth.” It was celebrated with tokens of delight. The several brigades were drawn up to hear discourses by their respective chaplains. The men were placed in specified positions to fire a feu de joie with muskets and cannon — three times three discharges of thirteen cannon. At the first the army huzzaed, “Long live the King of France;” at the second, “Long live the friendly European powers;” and at the third there was a shout, “The American States.” Washing ton and his wife, and other officers and their wives, attended the religious services of the New Jersey brigade. Then the commander-in-chief dined in public with all the officers. Patriotic toasts were given, and loud huzzas greeted Washington when he left the table. 

As the season advanced, comforts abounded at Valley Forge, the army increased, and on June 18, the encampment broke up, and the army began a chase of the British across New Jersey when the latter had evacuated Philadelphia.

A patriotic movement has been started to have the site of the Valley Forge encampment preserved as a public reservation, and on Oct. 19, 1901, the Daughters of the Revolution dedicated there a monument to the memory of the revolutionary soldiers who died during the encampment. The monument is a handsome obelisk of granite, 50 feet high, and at its base appear two bronze panels, one containing the seal of the society and the other representing a scene of camp-life at Valley Forge. Above these, the original colonial flag with thirteen stars has been carved in the shaft. The inscription reads: “To the Soldiers of Washington’s Army who Sleep in Valley Forge, 1777–1778.”

Occupation of Valley Forge by the Continental Army

AHC Note — This account is from Valley Forge, a Chronicle of American Heroism (1912) by Frank Hamilton Taylor.

When the patriot army moved from White Marsh, the matter of the winter location was apparently still undetermined. A wide diversity of opinion existed among the general officers, some favoring a general assault upon the city, others proposing Wilmington, Lancaster, and Reading.

The first objective of the creeping army, after turning its back upon Camp Hill, was the opposite shore of the Schuylkill River. The advance found, upon reaching Matson’s Ford, a force of 3,000 British awaiting them upon the opposite side. That night, the Americans moved up to Swede’s Ford and built a bridge of wagons, over which a force was thrown and the hills occupied around the Gulph Mills. Gulph Mills is situated about one and a half miles inland from the Schuylkill River and six miles from Valley Forge. The army’s baggage was long in crossing the river and much confused. The majority of the soldiers slept, the first two or three nights, upon the snow-clad ground.

The coming of the army to Valley Forge was so unexpected by the neighboring residents that they were taken utterly by surprise. Within a short time, a military town of probably one thousand huts of logs had arisen, and a large portion of the forest had already been sacrificed in the work of building and for fires. The stumps and brush were left along the declivity in front of the earthworks as a defense against storming parties. Later, when the redoubts were dug, a series of sharply-pointed pickets was planted between them. The redoubts were four feet high, with a ditch six feet wide.

General Washington occupied his usual army tent and shared the out-of-door log fires of the soldiery during the work of building the huts, and it was probably upon Christmas Day that he accepted the invitation of Isaac Potts, the miller and the minister of Friends, and moved into his snug house at the foot of the hill.

The Place of Valley Forge in American History

AHC Note — This account of the Winter at Valley Forge is from the Historical and Topographical Guide to Valley Forge (1916) by William Herbert Berk.

The year 1776 was a disheartening one for the American patriot, despite the boldness of the Declaration of Independence. The British had seized New York, and Washington, unsupported by Lee, was compelled to retreat through New Jersey. 

Congress, terror-stricken at the thought of the approach of the British army, had fled to Baltimore, and it seemed to many as if the cause of Liberty had been lost. Washington felt that “no man had a greater choice of difficulties, and less means to extricate himself from them.” 

Certainly, no man could do more with little. In ten days, by a master stroke, he wrested from Howe almost all the fruits of a long summer campaign. With only a portion of his small army he crossed the Delaware and pierced the British center, eluded Cornwallis at Trenton and struck another blow at Princeton, forcing the British to evacuate New Jersey, reanimating his disheartened troops, giving new courage to Congress, reviving patriotism and discouraging Toryism.

The British plan of action for 1777 was to subdue New England by separating it entirely from the other States. To this end, Burgoyne was to lead an army down from Canada, capturing Ticonderoga on the way, St. Leger was to seize Fort Stanwix and to march down the Mohawk Valley, and Howe was to ascend the Hudson, all finally concentrating at Albany for a descent upon the Eastern States. The plan was not carried out. St. Leger’s expedition was an absolute failure, largely due to Herkimer’s bravery and Arnold’s strategy, and Burgoyne, deprived of the support of St. Leger and Howe, lost his army at Saratoga. For Howe, instead of ascending the Hudson, as planned and as Washington expected, sailed for the Delaware, then on to the Chesapeake, and landed at Elkton, August 25th, to advance against the “rebel capital.” 

On the last day of July, Washington learned that the fleet was off the Delaware Capes and at once hurried to protect Philadelphia, passing through that city on his way to the Chesapeake.

The first engagement took place at Chadd’s Ford, on the Brandywine, where one division was routed, and the main body of the American army was compelled to retreat, the defeat being largely due to Howe’s Tory guides, whose intimate knowledge of the country made it possible for him to make the detour by which he surprised Sullivan’s right wing. 

Washington fell back to Philadelphia for one day’s rest and encamped at Schuylkill Falls. Howe attempted to cut off his retreat, but Washington moved up the Schuylkill Valley and crossed the river at Matson’s Ford (Conshohocken) on the 15th of September. The next day, he hurried along the old Lancaster Road in order to prevent Howe from taking a position between him and Swedes’ Ford (Bridgeport). That night, the army encamped between Warren Tavern and White Horse Tavern.

Here, a battle was imminent. The American picket was driven in by the British, and this seemed to be the prelude to a sharp engagement, as the enemy had marched from Concord with the evident intention of turning the American right flank. The rain, which began about the time of the first fire, increased in violence, and the American ammunition was soon useless. 

Washington, therefore, retreated to Yellow Springs and Warwick Furnace, at which latter place cannon were cast for the army, leaving Wayne at Paoli. Wayne was surprised and sustained such a brutal attack as to win for it the title of the “Massacre of Paoli.” 

Recrossing the Schuylkill at Parker’s Ford, the Americans passed through Trappe on the Reading turnpike to Perkiomen Creek. On the 21st, the British made a feint of marching against Reading, a depot of supplies, so Washington hastened to Pottsgrove (Pottstown), near which place the army was encamped for several days. 

Instead of doing what Washington expected, they encamped along the road from French Creek (Phoenixville) to Valley Forge. It was at this time that the Valley Forge was destroyed. 

On the 23d the British army crossed Fatland Ford and encamped that night on Stony Creek (Norristown), marching thence to Germantown. On the 26th, Lord Cornwallis took possession of Philadelphia.

During all these movements, Washington’s men suffered severely, being poorly clad and having but few blankets. At least one thousand men made these marches with bare feet. Undaunted by their sufferings the Americans marched to Pennypacker’s Mills (Schwenksville), and after a brief rest, on to Skippack and Worcester. From thence the army moved at seven o’clock on October 3d to attack the British at Germantown. That brilliant attempt ended in failure, and Washington retreated to the camp on the Perkiomen.

After three days’ rest, the army was again on the march, moving toward Philadelphia. On October 8th, it was at Towamencin, where a week was spent. The next stop was at Worcester, where the army received the joyful news of the surrender of Burgoyne. Whitpain was the next halting place. During this halt, General Wayne was tried by a court-martial on the charge of neglect of duty at Paoli and was “acquitted with the highest honor.”

On November 2d the army went into camp at White Marsh. While encamped there, Howe marched out from Philadelphia (December 4th) to make a night attack on the American army. News of this plan was brought to Washington by Mrs. Lydia Darrah, some say, and consequently, the army was on the alert. After maneuvering for a few days, Howe returned to the city without attempting to attack Washington. This practically ended the campaign of 1777.

On December 11th, the army evacuated the camp at Whitemarsh and marched to Matson’s Ford. The first division had crossed and part of the second when a force under Lord Cornwallis was discovered on the heights on both sides of the Gulph Road. Under the impression that the British had again left Philadelphia, the troops recrossed the river and the army moved up to Swedes’ Ford (Ford Street, Norristown), where it crossed during the night of the 12th and the morning of the 13th, and then took position at Gulph Mills. This seems to have been considered as a site for the winter encampment, but the army remained there less than a week, suffering severely from exposure. 

The final march of the year was from Gulph Mills to Valley Forge, the site selected for the winter quarters of the army. It is supposed that Valley Forge was selected on the recommendation of General Wayne, whose home was near at hand, and who well knew the country. Here six months were spent, from December 19, 1777, to June 19, 1778 — the most critical period of American history.

Dark as were the days at Morristown, when Paine wrote, “These are the times that try men’s souls,” those at Valley Forge were darker, indeed the darkest that America has seen. The short enlistments, largely due to the terrifying vision of a standing army, were a constant source of weakness and expense. The depreciation of the paper currency made the poor pay of the soldier only a starving wage, and officers were compelled to resign because they had not the means to eke out their expenses. 

Congress held out no hope of a future recognition of services rendered, such as have at other times relieved the soldier of concern for his future or for that of those dependent upon him. The foolish arrangement by which each State was to have its quota of promotions deprived the army of the advantage of officers of the highest merit and was a constant source of irritation.

The poor soldiers were the helpless victims of a meddling Congress and an incompetent commissary department. While the whole country was fairly prosperous, the men at Valley Forge starved. While they froze to death, “hogsheads of shoes, stockings, and clothing were lying at different places on the roads and in the woods, perishing for want of teams, or of money to pay the teamsters.” 

On the 23d of December, Washington reported to Congress that “Two thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight were unfit for duty, because barefoot or otherwise naked. Only eight thousand two hundred men were present for duty.” It is estimated that three thousand men perished on these hills during the six months of the encampment, while in the twenty-six principal engagements of the Revolution, the number of killed and wounded did not greatly exceed nine thousand!

During these months, the cause of American independence was endangered by a diabolic plot to supplant Washington. The “Conway Cabal,” as it was called, had eager supporters in Congress and the army, and for a while it seemed as if its evil design would be accomplished. It was an added burden for Washington to bear. “The intrigue against him he watched in stern silence till it was ripe and evident, then he crushed it with sudden exposure, and turned away in contempt, hardly so much as mentioning it in his letters to his friends.”

The weakest point was Congress. Its best men were in the army, or at home busily engaged in the effort to establish State governments. A mere handful of men gathered in York, often not enough for a quorum. These had little power and often less judgment. They could only advise the States, and their advice was not much heeded. There was, in fact, no central government.

If these were the darkest days theirs was the darkness which precedes the dawn. The first sign of this was the realization on the part of the American people of the character of Washington. “As the silly intrigues against him recoiled upon their authors, men began to realize that it was far more upon his consummate sagacity and unselfish patriotism than upon anything that Congress could do that the country rested its hopes of success in the great enterprise which it had undertaken. As the nullity of Congress made it ever more apparent that the country as a whole was without a government, Washington stood forth more and more conspicuously as the living symbol of the union of the States. In him and his work were centered the common hopes and the common interests of all the American people.”

While this change was being made in the minds of the people, Washington, with the help of Steuben, was making the army ready for its greater deeds. The days at Valley Forge were busy with preparation. New tactics were introduced, the arms were improved, and the discipline made more strict. Here, the little State armies were welded into the army of the United States.

Finally, upon these hills, the patriots of America beheld the sunrise of national glory. On February 6, 1778, the treaties of amity and commerce between France and the United States were signed. As the late Secretary [John] Hay has happily expressed it: “The act of France gave us a standing abroad which we had hitherto lacked. A man’s character is made by himself; his reputation exists in the minds of others. Our Declaration asserted our independence; the French alliance proved it. Even before 1776, we were a nation; but until our treaties with France, the world regarded us as a rebellion.”