Summary The Marblehead Addressers were Massachusetts residents who publicly supported Thomas Hutchinson and Thomas Gage during the crisis caused by the Intolerable Acts in 1774. In May, 23 citizens of Marblehead thanked Hutchinson for his service, while another 100 people welcomed Gage to Boston. Patriots who opposed the Intolerable Acts responded by publishing the names … Read more
Summary The Active Case was a legal dispute that developed after Gideon Olmstead and three other American prisoners seized the British sloop Active off the New Jersey coast in 1778. The dispute involved the Pennsylvania Court of Admiralty and the Committee of Appeals in the Continental Congress, which issued conflicting decisions over ownership of the … Read more
Summary Sir Walter Raleigh was one of the most prominent European Adventurers during the Age of Exploration. Raleigh was not only a soldier and an explorer, but also an English aristocrat who served in Parliament and was, for some time, a favorite of Queen Elizabeth I. As one of her famous “Sea Dogs,” Raleigh waged … Read more
The phrase “Dark and Bloody Ground” refers to the vast area west of the Appalachian Mountains that eventually became the states of Kentucky, West Virginia, and Ohio. It was known for frequent violence between Native American Indians and European settlers. Prior to the American Revolution, it was mostly populated by Indians, including the Shawnees, Delawares, … Read more
Summary The Philadelphia Associators were a volunteer military organization founded in Philadelphia on November 21, 1747, by Benjamin Franklin and other prominent members of Philadelphia society. The group was formed because the pacifist Quakers who controlled Pennsylvania’s government would not approve a mandatory militia unit to help defend Backcountry settlers against Native American Indian attacks. … Read more
The Three Sisters Cropping System refers to the interplanting of three staple crops, maize (corn), beans, and squash, by Native American Indian civilizations. Together, these are known as the “Three Sisters.” Planting the Three Sisters together in the Three Sisters Cropping System produced higher yields in a sustainable agricultural system. It was popular with the Pueblo … Read more
Summary The Cox Plan of Reconstruction was a proposal tied to the final stage of the Civil War, when Republicans expected the Confederate States of America to agree to peace terms or surrender on the battlefield. Republicans blamed Southern plantation owners, the primary slaveholders in the South, for the Civil War and wanted to break … Read more
Lee’s Lost Order was a copy of Special Orders No. 191, issued by Confederate General Robert E. Lee on September 9, 1862, during the Maryland Campaign. The orders divided his army by sending six Confederate divisions south to attack the Federal garrison at Harpers Ferry and three divisions north to Hagerstown on a foraging mission. … Read more
The Spanish Requirement of 1513, or El Requerimiento, was a document issued by the Spanish Crown in the early 16th Century that outlined the rights and responsibilities of the Spanish colonizers in the New World. The document stated that the colonizers were required to respect the rights of the native people and convert them to … Read more
Summary The Presidential Election of 1824 took place after the unity of the previous election disappeared. With the Federalist Party gone, the Democratic-Republican Party’s congressional caucus lost much of its authority, and several candidates competed for the presidency. William H. Crawford, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, John Quincy Adams, and John C. Calhoun all entered the … Read more
Summary The Presidential Election of 1820 was a unique situation in which James Monroe faced no opponent and won all but four votes for President. Of those four, one vote went to John Quincy Adams, and three were abstentions. Daniel D. Tompkins was reelected Vice President, although his margin of victory was not as large … Read more
Charles ruled Aragon and Castile (Spain) as Charles I from 1516–1556 and the Holy Roman Empire as Charles V from 1519–1556. Charles inherited vast territories, including Castile, Aragón, Burgundy, Austria, and Spain’s possessions in the Americas, making him one of the most powerful monarchs of the 16th Century. During his reign, Spain expanded its overseas … Read more
The Valladolid Debate was a famous debate that took place in 16th-century Spain regarding the treatment of native people. The debate was organized by the Spanish Crown and took place in Valladolid, Spain, in 1550-1551 between two prominent Spanish intellectuals, Bartolome de las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda. Las Casas argued that natives were … Read more
The New Laws of the Indies, or Leyes Nuevas, were reforms issued by King Charles V in 1542 to protect native people in the Americas from exploitation by Spanish colonists in the New World. Influenced in part by Bartolomé de las Casas and other critics of harsh treatment of natives, the laws prohibited the enslavement … Read more
Established by Charles V in 1524, the Council of the Indies served as Spain’s main governing body for its American colonies. It served as the supreme court for colonial affairs, advised the monarch on policy, appointed officials, drafted laws, and oversaw Catholic missions. Based in Madrid after 1555, it also oversaw the Casa de Contratación, … Read more
Biography Early Life and Education Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda was a leading historian and scholar in 16th-century Spain who became an influential defender of the Spanish Conquest of the Americas. A dedicated student of Aristotle and other classical writers, he earned considerable respect in Spanish intellectual circles. Erasmus referred to him as “the Spanish Livy.” … Read more
Summary Bartolomé de Las Casas was a soldier, Spanish Dominican friar, and advocate for native rights during the Spanish Conquest of the Americas. After traveling to the Caribbean, he became the first priest ordained in the New World and served as a chaplain during the Conquest of Cuba. His experience with the Encomienda System convinced … Read more
Presidential Reconstruction was the phase of Reconstruction in which President Andrew Johnson initiated policies to quickly readmit the former Confederate States to the Union. Johnson appointed temporary Governors to oversee the drafting of new state constitutions, and he agreed to recognize each state that complied with constitutional requirements for statehood and ratified the 13th Amendment. … Read more
Lincoln’s Ten Percent Reconstruction Plan was President Abraham Lincoln’s proposal for restoring former Confederate States to the Union during the Civil War. Under the plan, a former Confederate State could form a new government when 10% of its voters took an Oath of Loyalty to the United States and accepted Emancipation. Lincoln also offered pardons … Read more
Lincoln’s Pocket Veto refers to when President Abraham Lincoln refused to sign the Wade-Davis Bill, a Congressional Reconstruction bill passed in 1864. The bill required a majority of white male voters in a former Confederate State to take an Oath of Loyalty before forming a new government and imposed stricter requirements for readmission to the … Read more
