Freedmen were formerly enslaved African Americans who gained legal freedom during and after the Civil War, especially through the Emancipation Proclamation and the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment. During Reconstruction, Freedmen sought to reunite families while establishing themselves in society and politics. Many supported the Republican Party and exercised voting rights under new state constitutions … Read more
Summary Redeemers were white Southern Democrats who overthrew Reconstruction governments during the 1870s and then dominated Southern politics during the New South Movement. They controlled every former Confederate state during the last quarter of the 19th Century and formed about one-third of both houses of Congress. Their political strength allowed them to rival Northeastern and … Read more
Summary From 1909 to 1913, President William Howard Taft and Secretary of State Philander C. Knox followed a foreign policy known as “Dollar Diplomacy.” Taft and Knox believed the United States should use diplomacy to create stability and order in foreign countries. They expected stable conditions to support American trade, investment, and other commercial interests. … Read more
Summary President Theodore Roosevelt developed a forceful approach toward Latin America and the Caribbean that people often called “Big Stick Diplomacy.” This approach became known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 had taken a mostly passive position. It warned European nations not to expand their influence or establish … Read more
Summary Secretary of State John Hay introduced the Open Door Policy through a series of diplomatic notes that were issued in 1899 and 1900. The policy called for equal trade opportunities among foreign nations operating in China and respect for China’s Government authority and territory. British expert Alfred E. Hippisley and American expert William W. … Read more
Daniel Dulany “the Younger” was a Maryland lawyer and politician who published a pamphlet that opposed Taxation Without Representation during the Stamp Act Crisis. Despite this, he remained loyal to the Crown and engaged in a public debate with Charles Carroll of Carrollton, carried out through essays published in colonial newspapers. Dulaney was unable to … Read more
James Rivington was the publisher of a Loyalist newspaper called Rivington’s New-York Gazetteer, or simply Rivington’s Gazette. This made him a target for the New York Sons of Liberty, who forced him to cease publication in 1783. Despite his public support for Britain, historians have speculated that he had ties to the Culper Spy Ring … Read more
Hugh Gaine was a New York printer who published the New York Mercury and the New York Royal Gazette. He held a neutral view of the American Revolution, which created conflicts with Loyalists and Patriots. In November 1775, the New York Sons of Liberty threatened to destroy his print shop. During the war, Gaine’s position shifted, depending on … Read more
John Holt was a prominent newspaper publisher from Williamsburg, Virginia. His most famous publication was the New York Journal or General Advertiser, or Holt’s Journal. Holt was a member of the New York Sons of Liberty, who helped support his printing operation. He fled New York City when British forces approached it in 1776. He resumed printing … Read more
Timeline September 2 — General John Sullivan, recently paroled by the British, arrived in Philadelphia carrying a letter from Admiral Richard Howe requesting to meet with a delegation of private citizens. Congress agreed to discuss how to respond to Howe’s request. AHC Notes September 3 — Congress instructed General George Washington not to burn New … Read more
Summary The American Party grew out of the old Whig Party and became one of the fastest-growing political parties in the mid-1850s. It appealed to voters who feared rising immigration and Catholic influence and became widely known as the “Know Nothings.” The movement increased after large numbers of immigrants arrived in the United States following … Read more
Summary The Presidential Election of 1816 took place after the nation survived attempts by members of the Federalist Party to undermine the Federal Government over the War of 1812. Their primary move was the Hartford Convention, which discussed secession and proposed constitutional amendments. The Convention was unpopular, and the party’s candidate in 1818, Rufus King, … Read more
Summary The XYZ Dispatches were the record of diplomatic exchanges between American commissioners Charles C. Pinckney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry and intermediaries used by French Foreign Minister Talleyrand, who were referred to as “X, Y, and Z.” The dispatches revealed French demands for an apology, a loan that would weaken American neutrality, and bribes, … Read more
Summary The Presidential Election of 1812 took place early in the War of 1812, which was not going well for the United States. Despite this, James Madison was nominated for a second term by the Democratic-Republican congressional caucus, and Elbridge Gerry was nominated for Vice President. The Democratic-Republicans faced strong opposition from DeWitt Clinton of … Read more
Summary The Cotton Whigs were a group of northern Whigs in the 1840s who focused on preserving the Union, protecting property rights, and maintaining the status quo on the divisive issue of slavery. They opposed the Abolition Movement’s antislavery message and sought to maintain strong economic and political ties with southern Whigs who owned large … Read more
Summary The Election of 1808 took place after Thomas Jefferson decided not to seek a third term, following George Washington’s example of serving no more than two terms. The Republican congressional caucus selected Secretary of State James Madison as Jefferson’s successor and kept George Clinton on the ticket as Vice President. Madison and Clinton defeated … Read more
Summary The National Union Party was the name Abraham Lincoln and the Republicans adopted when they worked with War Democrats, a faction that supported the use of military force against the Confederate States of America. The coalition often ran War Democrats as candidates in state and local elections. This name helped Democratic voters support pro-war … Read more
Overview After the Union victory at Gettysburg, General George G. Meade and the Army of the Potomac followed General Robert E. Lee and the Army of Northern Virginia as it retreated into Virginia. Meade failed to block Lee’s escape after fighting at Williamsport, Boonsboro, and Manassas Gap. In September, Lee weakened his army by sending … Read more
Overview After the Union victory at Gettysburg, General George G. Meade and the Army of the Potomac followed General Robert E. Lee and the Army of Northern Virginia as it retreated into Virginia. Meade failed to block Lee’s escape after fighting at Williamsport, Boonsboro, and Manassas Gap. In September, Lee weakened his army by sending … Read more
Definition The Sedition Act was passed in 1798 by the Federalists after the release of the XYZ Dispatches increased their power in Congress, and was signed into law by President John Adams. The act criminalized certain opposition to government laws and the publication of false or malicious writing against the Federal Government. Federalists defended the … Read more
